THE 

Young Engineer's 

OW3ST BOOK. 

CONTAINING 

AN EXPLANATION OF THE PRINCIPLE AND THEORIES 

ON WHICH THE STEAM-ENGINE AS A PRIME 

MOVER IS BASED ; 

'ITH A DESCRIPTION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF STEAM 

-fINES, CONDENSING AND NON-CONDENSING, MARINE, 

STATIONARY, LOCOMOTIVE, FIRE, TRACTION, AND 

PORTABLE; TOGETHER WITH 

INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO DESIGN, PROPORTION, LOCATE, REPAIR, 

REVERSE, AND RUN ALL CLASSES OF STEAM-ENGINES, 

WITH TABLES AND FORMULAS FOR FINDING THEIR 

HORSE-POWER. ALSO, SUGGESTIONS ON THE 

SELECTION, CARE, AND MANAGEMENT OF 

ALL CLASSES OF STEAM-ENGINES, 

BOILERS, PUMPS, INJECTORS, Etc., 

« n OR THE USE OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS WHERE 

STUDENTS ARE INTENDED TO ENGAGE IN MECHANICAL 

PURSUITS, AND FOR THE PRIVATE INSTRUCTION 

OF YOUTHS WHO SHOW AN INCLINATION FOR 

STEAM ENGINEERING. 



Wxt% 108 gUtttfitaitotw. 

By STEPHEN ftOPEB, Engineer, 

tUTHOB OP BOPES'S PBACTICAL HAND-BOOKS FOB ENGINEEES AND FIBEMEH. 

THIRD EDITION, REVISED. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER, 

1022 Market Street. 



PRACTICAL ENGINEERING BOOKS. 

ST-JEP,H^N ROI'PER. «A^ 

• ' '^0at$c!ii£i4 , '(fe 1 H^ll-PWssure or Non-jLWdeiising Steam- 
; ' , l ' JBmjfosq " • J** • • ••" t » . * - ■ * * ° 

" Hand- Book of the Locomotive. 
Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines. 
Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 
Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 
Questions and Answers for Engineers. 
Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and Firemwu 
Care and Management of the Steam Boiler. 
Engineer's Handy-Book. 
Toung Engineer's Own Book, 



'■ . Copyright. 
EDWARD MEEKS. 



AVL riahts reserved 

Copyright. 
DAVID M'cKAY, 

1897. 



Press of Wm. F. Fell & Co. 

1220-24 Sansom St., 

PHILADELPHIA. 



Dedication. 



TO ALL THOSE 

WHO IN THE FUTURE INTEND TO ADOPT THE CALLING 

OF THE 

MECHANICAL ENGINEER, 



INTRODUCTION". 



THE object of the author, in the preparation of 
this book, is to fill a void which has existed in 
the literature of the Steam-Engine since its advent. 
jS"o writer has heretofore written a work on this 
subject which is adapted to the wants of the youth 
who manifests inclinations for steam-engineering'. 
Nearly all the text-books in institutions where boys 
are trained for the different mechanical pursuits, 
consist of old philosophical treatises, which contain 
brief paragraphs on air, heat, steam, etc., and are 
illustrated with such crude arrangements as Watt's, 
Newcumet's, and Rudolph's engines. This is alto- 
gether wrong, as no book is too good for a boy who 
shows an aptness or fondness for the study of any 
particular mechanical subject. He should be given 
to understand that, though the Steam-Engine is 
based on theories of heat, combustion, air, water, 
steam, etc., these theories are as immutable as the 
ground on which we tread, the firmament above us, 
or the ocean which stretches out before us. 

The young engineer should be instructed how to 
locate, set up, adjust, and put together all the numer- 
ous parts which go to make up the great prime 



X INTRODUCTION. 

mover of man — the Steam-Engine. If it be admit- 
ted it is absolutely necessary for a man to devote 
years to the acquirement of knowledge, for the pur- 
pose of qualifying himself for the duties of any spe- 
cial calling, and if the Steam-Engine is the most 
important invention that ever originated in the 
mind of man, and has, further, engrossed more 
thought, more mechanical genius, and more devotion 
from the scientist and the mechanic, than any other 
mechanical idea, then why should we not train our 
boys to appreciate it, care for it, and manage it, 
instead of allowing them to become imbued with the 
erroneous idea that it may, at no very far distant 
day, be superseded by another motor ? For, accord- 
ing to the natural order of things, such a change can 
never be realized ; because there are certain condi- 
tions connected with the Steam-Engine, and its 
employment as a motor, which must always place it 
ahead of any other prime mover. 

For this reason we ought to continue to improve 
it in design, workmanship, proportions, material, 
and fine finish ; this last is the most gratifying of 
ideas to the thoughtful mind, lending additional at- 
tractions to the natural and trained mechanic, the 
theorist, as well as the practical, intelligent engineer, 

S. R. 



CONTENTS. 



For a full reference to Contents in detail^ see Index, 

page 343. 

PAGB 

The Steam-Engine 27 

Steam-Engines 31 

Horse-Power of Steam-Engines . . . .37 
Table showing the Factor of Horse-Power for Different 
Piston Speeds, Pressures, and Diameter of Cylinders 44 
Economy and Waste in the Steam-Engine . . 49 
Difference between Condensing and Non-Con- 
densing Engines 54 

Design of Steam-Engines 56 

Portable and Semi- Steam-Engines . . . .58 

Small Steam-Engines 60 

Traction Steam-Engines 62 

Proportions of Steam-Engines 65 

Fly- Wheels . 68 

The Steam-Piston 70 

xi 



XH CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The Steam-Engine Cylinder 74 

Table showing the Proper Thickness of Steam-Cylin- 
ders of Steam-Engines of different Diameters, includ- 
ing the necessary Allowance for Ee-boring . .76 

Bed-Plates and Housings 76 

The Crank . .79 

The Eccentric . 83 

The Link 85 

connecting-eod boxes 86 

How Steam-Engines are Made . . . .89 
Materials Employed in the Manufacture op 

Steam-Engines 91 

How to Locate an Engine 92 

Care of the Steam-Engine 94 

How to Clean a Steam-Engine . . . .95 

How to Set Up an Engine 98 

How to Set Out the Piston-Packing in the Cyl- 
inder . • 99 

Piston- and Valve-Eod Packing . . . . 101 

Let the Steam-Engine Alone 104 

How to Treat the Engine 105 

Man's Inhumanity to the Machine . . . 106 
Technical Terms applied to Different Parts of 
Steam-Engines which Designate the Mem- 
bers of the Human Body . . . . .110 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

PAGE 

Technical Terms applied to Different Parts of 
Steam-Engines and Boilers which Designate 

Garments 113 

Knocking in Steam-Engines 114 

What should the Young Engineer Be? . . 115 
What should the Young Engineer Know? . . 117 
The Young Engineer should Practise Economy 119 
What Tools should the Young Engineer Have? 121 
Conversation between the Young Engineer and 
his Employer ....... 124 

The Steam-Engine Indicator 126 

How to Adjust the Indicator . • . . .129 
The Pantograph, or Lazy Tongs . . . .131 

The Planimeter 131 

The Vacuum — Its Effect on the Working of 
the Steam-Engine and as a Condition of 

Economy 133 

Table showing the Vacuum in Inches of Mercury and 
Pounds Pressure per Square Inch taken from above 

Atmosphere 136 

Vocabulary of Natural and Mechanical Proc- 
ess 138 

The Slide- Valve 142 

Technical Terms applied to the Working of 
Steam in the Cylinders of a Steam-Engine 145 
2 



XlV CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

How to Set a Slide- Valve 146 

Lap on the Slide- Valve 147 

Table showing the Amount of Lap required for Sta- 
tionary and Locomotive Slide- Valve Engines . . 148 

Lead on the Slide- Valve 149 

The Steam-Engine Governor . . • . 150 

The Brown Bevolution Indicator .... 153 

Revolution and Stroke 154 

Table showing the Number of Strokes or Revolutions 
required for a Given Piston Speed .... 156 

The Steam- Whistle 157 

The Steam-Gauge 159 

Attachments, Tools, and Fittings used in Con- 
nection with Steam-Engines and Boilers . 163 
The Screw-Propeller and Paddle- Wheel . . 165 

Air 168 

Table showing the Expansion of Air by Heat and the 
Increase in Bulk in Proportion to Increase of Tem- 
perature 173 

Table showing the Weight and Composition of Satu- 
rated Air 174 

Air-Pumps 175 

Air- Vessels 177 

Water 179 

Table showing the Boiling-points of Liquids under 
Pressure of One Atmosphere 182 



CONTENTS. XV 

PAGB 

Table showing the Boiling-point for Fresh Water at 
different Altitudes above Sea-level .... 182 

Table showing the Weight of Water in Pipe of various 
Diameters One Foot in Length ..... 183 

Rules for Calculating the Quantity of Water required 
for different Specific Purposes 184 

Table showing the Average Number of Gallons of 
Water used per capita for Culinary, Manufacturing, 
and Sanitary Purposes, and Fountains, in the Princi- 
pal Cities of this Country and Europe . . . 187 

Table showing the Capacity of Cisterns and Tanks com- 
puted in Barrels of Thirty-one and one-half Gallons 188 

Table showing the Capacity of Tanks of given Diam- 
eters and given Depths in Gallons . . . 189, 190 
Heat 191 

Table showing the Temperature of Fire, and the Ap- 
pearance of different Fuels at different Degrees Fah., 
and that it is nearly the same for all kinds of Com- 
bustibles under like Conditions 195 

Table showing the Fusing Temperature of different 
Substances in Degrees Fah 195 

Table showing the Eelative Value of different Non- 
conductors 195 

Table showing the Melting-points of different Solids 

and of Alloys 196 

Combustion 197 

Table showing the Temperature at which different 
Substances become Combustible and Ignite without 



XVI CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

the Intervention of a Spark of either Electricity or 
Fire 201 

Table showing Combustible Matter in different Sub- 
stances, the Quantity of Air required to Support Com- 
bustion, the Theoretic Value, and Highest Attainable 
Value of each under Ordinary Conditions . . 202 

Table showing the Theoretic Value of different kinds 
of American Coal in Heat Units, Pounds of Water 
Evaporated, and Percentage of Waste . . . 203 
Table showing the Combustible and Non-combustible 

in the best Quality of American Anthracite Coals . 204 
Table showing the Constituents of Cumberland Coals 

(American) 204 

Table showing the Composition of best Pennsylvania 

Anthracite Coal 204 

Table showing the Basis of Virginia Caking Coal . 204 
Table showing the Combustible Value of Ohio Coals . 204 
Table deduced from an Analysis of Indiana Coals . 205 
Table showing the Ingredients in Newcastle Coal (Eng- 
lish) 205 

Table showing the Heating Power of Coke as Fuel . 205 
Table showing the Chemical Equivalents of Wood . 205 
Table showing the Vegetable Composition of Peat . 205 
Table showing the Carbon, Volatile, Sulphur, etc., in 
Pittsburgh Coal . . . . . . .205 

Table showing the Value of Lignite as Fuel . . 206 
Table showing the Composition of Combustibles in 
Coal, Coke. Wood, and Peat, etc 206 



CONTENTS. XV11 

PAGH 

Table showing the Value of Fluid Fuels . . .206 

Fuel 207 

Wood 210 

Table showing the Comparative Value of different 

kinds of Wood as Fuel 210 

Steam 211 

Economy of Working Steam Expansively . . 215 
Bule for finding the Amount of Benefit to be derived 

from Working Steam Expansively .... 218 
Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms to be used in Connec- 
tion with the above Kule 219 

Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam in the 
Cylinder for the Whole Stroke when Cut-off at any 

given Point 220 

Eule for finding the Average Pressure in Steam-Cylin- 
ders 221 

Table of Multipliers by which to find the Average 
Pressure of Steam in the Cylinders of Steam-Engines, 
for any Point of Cut-off . . . .• . .221 
Properties op Saturated Steam .... 222 

Caloric 223 

The Boot Sectional Steam-Boiler .... 225 

Steam-Boilers 226 

Steam-Boiler Performances 233 

Chimneys 235 

How Steam-Boilers are Made • . • 238 

2* B 



XV111 CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

Smoke 241 

Table showing the Safe Working Internal Pressures for 
Iron Boilers . 244-247 

Table showing the Diminution in the Tenacity of 
Wrought-Iron when exposed to High Temperatures 248 

Table showing the Linear Expansion of different 
Metals by Heat for each Degree Fah. . . . 249 

Table showing the Tensile Strength of different Ma- 
terials, in Pounds per Square Inch .... 250 

Table showing the Number of Square Feet of Heating 
Surface which Experience has shown to be Capable 
of Evaporating the Necessary Quantity of Water, to 
Develop a Horse-Power under Ordinary Circum- 
stances 253 

Table showing the Increase of Sensible Heat and the 
Decrease of Latent Heat, according to Pressure, and 
vice versd 254 

Table showing the Properties of Saturated Steam 255, 256 

Table showing the Elasticity, Temperature, Volume, 
and Velocity with which Steam would Escape into 
the Atmosphere, at a Pressure of from ] 4.7 Pounds 
per Square Inch, 212° Fah., to 441 Pounds to 426.3° 
Fah., above Atmosphere 257-259 

Table showing the Velocity with which Steam will 
Escape into the Atmosphere at different Pressures 
from 1 to 130 Pounds per Square Inch . . . 260 

Instructions foe, Firing 261 

Dampers 265 



CONTENTS. XIX 

PAGE 

Cake of the Steam-Boiler • 266 

Steam-Boiler Explosions 269 

Grate-Bars 272 

Boiler Braces 273 

Solvents for Kemoving Scale and Incrustation 

from Steam-Boilers 275 

Boiler Materials 277 

Furnaces 279 

Safety- Valves 280 

Incrustation of Steam-Boilers .... 282 

Feed- Water Heaters 286 

Table showing the Percentage of Saving of Fuel 
effected by Heating Feed- Water, Steam Pressure 60 

Pounds 289 

Table showing the Units of Heat required to Evaporate 
each Pound of Feed- Water when supplied to a Steam- 
Boiler at different Temperatures and Evaporated 

under different Pressures 290-292 

The Circle 293 

Table showing the Diameter and Areas of Circles from 

0.10 to 1.00 Inch, advancing by .005 . . .29 

Table showing the Diameter and Circumference of 
Circles from to |- of an Inch, advancing by 

Eighths . .295 

Table of Diameters and Areas of Circles from to £ of 
an Inch, advancing from £ 296 



XX CONTENTS. 

PAGH 

Table of Diameters, Circumferences, and Areas of Cir- 
cles from T V of an Inch to 25 Inches . . 297-299 
Standard Units adopted in this Country and 
England 300 

Table showing the Specific Gravity of different Sub- 
stances per Cubic Foot ...'.. . . . 301-305 

Table showing the Specific Gravity and Weights of 

various Substances 306 

Logarithms 306 

Table of Logarithms of Numbers from to 60 . 307, 308 

Table of Co-efficients of Friction .... 309, 310 

Table of Fractional Parts of an Inch expressed Deci- 
mally 311 

Table of Standards of English and United States Linear, 
Square, Cubic, Solid, and Liquid Measures . .312 

Table of Weights and Measures . . . .313, 314 

Table showing the Crushing Strength of different Ma- 
terials, in Pounds per Square Inch .... 315 

Table showing the Modulus of Elasticity of different 
Materials, in Tons of Two Thousand Pounds each . 316 
Non-conductors for Preventing Kadiation and 
Condensation in Steam - Cylinders, Pipes, 
Boilers, Steam-Domes, etc 318 

Table showing the Loss of Heat by Radiation through 
Naked or Uncovered Steam-Pipes, also the Economy 
of Fuel induced by the Use of Non-conductors . 320 

Table showing the Valire of different Substances as 
Non-conductors 321 



CONTENTS. 



XXI 



PAGE 

The Injector . 322 

Table showing the Maximum Capacity of Sellers' Self- 
Adjusting Injectors, Steam Pressure in Pounds per 

Square Inch, etc. • 326 

Instructions for Setting Up Injectors . . . 328 

Pumps «... 329 

Table of Proportions of the Dayton Cam Pump . . 334 
Directions for Setting Up Steam-Pumps . . 335 
Table showing the Diameter of the Steam- and Water- 
Cylinders, Length of Stroke, Strokes per Minute, 
Capacity, Size of Steam-, Exhaust-, Suction-, and Dis- 
charge-Pipes of the " Dean Steam- Pump " . . 337 
Belting 339 




THE OTTO GAS-ENGINE. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

Front View of the Green Automatic Cut-off Engine 

Frontispiece 

The Otto Gas-engine xxi 

Back View of the Green Automatic Cut-off Engine xxii 
William Sellers & Co.'s Binder-frame . . . xxvi 

The Crist Vibrating Engine 30 

Front View of the Twiss Automatic Cut-off Engine . 34 
Hoven Owens & Richter's Corliss Engine . . .36 

The Armington & Sims' Engine 40 

Front View of the Blymyer Horizontal Stationary- 
Engine 45 

Back View of the Blymyer Horizontal Stationary 

Engine 50 

The Diamond Baxter Engine 55 

The Greenfield Yacht-engine 57 

The Buckeye Automatic Cut-off Engine . . .59 
Payne & Son's Vertical Engines and Boilers . . 60 
The Blymyer Portable Engine . . ... .61 

The Lane & Bodey Traction or Self-propelling 

Steam-engine 63 

The Whitehill Automatic Cut-off Engine ... 65 

The Ball Steam-engine 71 

The Steam-engine Cylinder 74 

Kriebel Vibrating Valveless Engine . . . .75 

The Twiss Yacht-engine 77 

Single Crank and Eccentric 79 

Double Crank 80 

Disc Crank .81 

Crank at Whole Stroke 82 

Crank at Half Stroke 82 

xxiii 



XXI V LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Crank Travelling Inboard, or Under . . . .82 
Crank Moving Outboard, or Over . . • .82 

The Eccentric 83 

Kriebel's Vibratory Cylinder Valveless Yacht-engine 87 

The Steam's Engine 93 

The Sombert Engine 96 

Kartzenstein's Piston-rod Packing .... 101 

The Straight-line Steam-engine 103 

The Taylor Vertical Engine 109 

Railroad Train Crossing the Susquehanna Bridge • 122 
Thompson's Steam-engine Indicator .... 126 

The Pantograph, or Lazy Tongs 131 

The Planimeter 132 

The Ocean Steamer . 133 

The Westinghouse Engine 137 

The Slide-valve 142 

Lap on the Slide-valve - 147 

Lead on the Slide-valve 149 

The Gardner Steam-engine Governor . . . 150 
The Pickering Steam-engine Governor . . . 151 

The Speed-revolution Indicator 153 

The Steam-whistle . . . . . . .157 

The Steam Pressure-gauge 159 

Sectional View of the Steam Pressure-gauge . . 161 
Sectional View of the Steam-gauge . . . .161 
The Vacuum-gauge . . . . . . . 162 

Screw Stop-valve 163 

Check-valve 163 

Stop-valve, Check-valve, and Goose-neck . . . 163 
Stop-valve, with Tap, Union, and Pet-cock . . 163 
Bib-cock . . . . . . . . .163 

Drip-cock 163 

Gauge-cock 163 

Flat Spanner 163 

Round Spanner 163 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. X^V 

PAGE 

Monkey-wrench ........ 163 

Double-end Fork-wrench ...... 164 

Yoke-wrench with Slot 164 

Single Fork-wrench 164 

Union, or Cup and Ball-joint 164 

Tap-bolt 164 

Set Screw .164 

Hexagon Nut . 164 

Long Tap-bolt 164 

Stud-bolt . . 164 

Lock-nut, with Lever 164 

Tee 164 

Elbow, with Nipple 164 

Return Bend 164 

Follower 164 

Plug . . 164 

Reducer 164 

Bushing 164 

Ferrule 164 

Union 164 

The Four-bladed Screw-propeller .... 165 
The Turner Condenser and Air-pump . . . 175 

Air-vessel .178 

Waterfall . . . . 179 

Combustion . . .-■■'. . . .' . . 197 
The Root Sectional Steam-boiler .... 225 

The Harrison Sectional Steam-boiler .... 228 
The McKee & Rankin Flue-boiler . . . .232 

Chimney 235 

Steam's Tubular Fire-box Boiler ..... 237 
Murrill & Kyser's Automatic Steam-damper . . 264 
The Cooper Tubular Steam-boiler, with Dome, Safety- 
valve, etc. . . . . . . , .267 

The Adams Grate-bar . 272 

The " Common Sense " Steam-boiler .... 273 



XXVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

The Galloway Steam-boiler 277 

The Jarvis Improved Furnace 279 

Safety-valve 281 

The Baningwarith Feed- water Heater . . . 286 

Badger Heater 288 

Circles . . .293 

William Sellers & Co.'s Injectors .... 322 

The Dean Steam-pump 329 

The Dayton Cam Steam-pump 334 

William Sellers & Co.'s Mule Pulleys and Idlers 338, 341 

The Cameron Steam-pump 363 

The Eclipse Lubricator 343 




WILLIAM SELLERS & CO.'S BINDER-FRAME FOR 
GUIDING BELTS. 



THE 

YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



THE STEAM-ENGINE. 

BY whom or at what period the steam-engine was 
invented, or who first conceived the idea of 
employing the vapor of boiling water as a motor, will 
probably never be known, as ancient history throws 
very little light on the subject, while modern records 
convey the impression that it is made up of parts 
which originated in the mechanical genius of several 
artisans and inventive minds. This seems plausible, 
from the fact that the patent-office records of all 
civilized countries fail to show that the steam-engine, 
as a machine, was ever at any time covered by any 
valid patent. The employment of steam as a means 
of propulsion, and that of the steam-engine as a 
motor, are two of the grandest mechanical concep- 
tions that ever emanated from the intellect or me- 
chanical genius of man. 

The chroniclers of England, France, Spain, and 
other countries of Europe, frequently put forth the 

27 



28 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

claim that the steam-engine was invented by a sub. 
ject of their respective nationality, but investigation 
in all cases proves that this idea is erroneous, and 
that the steam-engine antedated the time specified 
by them. It is also asserted that Hero, of Alex- 
andria, who lived about 280 years B. c, was the 
inventor of the steam-engine. This also is a mis- 
take, as the contrivance which is shown as the in- 
vention of Hero bears no resemblance to the steam- 
engine, as it embodies no mechanical arrangement 
except a simple globe. Besides, it is well known 
that such vessels were used in Egypt for blowing 
fires, producing draught in chimneys, distributing in- 
cense, and terrifying ignorant and deluded people into 
idol worship. Centuries before Hero's time many 
of them were of exquisite design and workmanship, 
while the contrivance which is claimed to be the 
invention of Hero is of a rude and primitive char- 
acter. 

Notwithstanding all our modern improvements 
in the strength, power, and utility of machinery, 
when we witness the difficulty experienced in raising 
heavy weights only a few feet, our wonder is aroused 
to know how architects, in the construction of some 
of the most wonderful structures that the world has 
ever seen, and which are frequently met with in 
ancient Egypt, could raise stones weighing hundreds 
of tons to a height of several hundred feet, or how 
they could transport these materials hundreds of 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 29 

miles over an uneven country, from the place where 
they were quarried, and place them in position on 
the structure for which they were intended, without 
the aid of steam. 

It will be claimed that, if the steam-engine was 
in use in the early ages of the world, there would 
undoubtedly be some traces of it found in Egypt 
to furnish evidence of the existence of the steam- 
engine being among the lost arts. The question 
will naturally arise, Why should it have so com- 
pletely disappeared ? But the following answer will 
suffice : How much will be left of the great bridge 
across the Mississippi at St. Louis, of the East 
River Bridge at New York, or of any of the proud 
structures which demonstrate the genius of the civil 
and mechanical engineers of the present day, three 
thousand years hence ? Is there not a bare possi- 
bility that the scream of the locomotive was heard 
on the banks of the Euphrates thousands of years 
before America was discovered, and that the whistle 
of the stationary engine was heard in the shadow 
of the Pyramids, suggesting a suspension of opera- 
tions for refreshment and rest ? 

Whoever first suggested the employment of steam 
as a motor conferred a great boon on the human 
race. It is difficult to say what plane of civilization 
we would now occupy if the steam-engine had not 
been discovered. The printing-press and electric 
•telegraph have done much for the transmission of 
3* 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 31 

knowledge between the different nations of the 
earth, but their agency would be very feeble and 
uncertain unless aided by the power of steam. It 
may be said, without fear of contradiction, that the 
steam-engine is the great prime mover of man. 



STEAM-ENGINES. 

A steam-engine is a machine which receives its 
motion directly from the pressure or elastic force of 
steam without the intervention of belts, pulleys, 
cog-gearing, or any other mechanical arrangement. 
They are termed prime movers, and are either sta- 
tionary, locomotive, traction, portable, or marine. 
Whether condensing or non-condensing, they are all 
also either simple or compound. 

It is understood that the simple engine is one in 
which the steam is used but once ; being admitted 
to the cylinder, it propels the piston to the point of 
cut-off, and is then allowed to expand down to the 
point of escape ; while in the compound engine the 
benefit of several expansions is realized, by admit- 
ting the steam from one cylinder to another before 
it is permitted to escape to the condenser. All loco- 
motives and ordinary stationary engines are simple, 
whilst the engines employed on ocean steamships 
are generally compound. 

An idea has prevailed, among inexperienced en- 
gineers, that an engine must be specially designed 



32 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

and constructed to meet the requirements of a con- 
densing engine. This is an erroneous idea; any 
engine may be converted into a condensing engine 
by attaching a condenser and air-pump to it, or a 
condensing engine may be converted into a non- 
condensing engine by removing the condenser and 
air-pump, and allowing the exhaust to escape under 
atmospheric pressure. 

Peculiarities of design have no influence in the 
case of either condensing or non-condensing engines. 
They may be either horizontal, vertical, incline, 
oscillating trunk, steeple, direct-acting, babk-action, 
or geared. The design is only employed to meet 
some peculiar requirements. Any of them may 
be either condensing or non-condensing, as the case 
may be. 

Traction engines are a class of machines which 
are intended to travel on ordinary roads without a 
track, while portable engines are those which are 
furnished with wheels for the purpose of locomotion, 
or, when they are small, may be carried by hand 
from place to place. They are frequently employed 
for agricultural purposes. In the case of the sta- 
tionary engine for manufacturing purposes, the 
energy exerted by the steam in the cylinder against 
the piston is transmitted to the machinery, or work 
to be performed, by belts, pulleys, cog-gearing, or 
some other mechanical device, pillow-blocks being 
the fulcrums to which the force is exerted. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 33 

In the case of the marine engine, the power 
expended in working the propeller-shaft or paddle- 
wheels is transmitted to the thrust-block, where the 
force is exerted which propels the vessel forward or 
backward. The locomotive derives its power from 
the pressure of the steam in the cylinder, and from 
the bite of the drivers on the rail. The more weight 
thrown on the drivers, the greater the traction will 
be, and the engine will push or pull. 

But in any case the condition of the rails will 
influence the load or number of tons that a loco- 
motive will be able to handle. If they are wet or 
dry, the engine will be able to exert its traction 
force ; if they are simply damp, it will diminish the 
power of the locomotive ; but if they are greasy, as 
is frequently the case in the neighborhood of depots, 
the cohesion between the tires of the driving-wheels 
is destroyed, and the engine will not be able to start 
more than half its ordinary load. 

Fire-engines, such as are generally used for ex- 
tinguishing fires, are simply steam-engines, with a 
pump attached to one end of the piston-rod. There 
is an object to be accomplished by making them as 
light as possible, and as a result they are generally 
strained, over-taxed, and ruined. 

The piston of a steam-engine is subjected to two 
forces, viz., that of the incoming steam from the 
boiler, and the outgoing steam due to the resistance 
of the atmosphere. 

C 



M 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 35 

Now, suppose the initial pressure was 70 pounds per 
square inch, and the resistance of the air 14. 7 pounds 
per square inch, the power utilized would be the differ- 
ence between the two factors. Suppose the cylinder 
was 10 inches in diameter, its area would be 78.54; 
now, if the pressure, as above stated, is 70 pounds 
per square inch against an area of 78.54, it would be 
equal to 5497.80. 

Now, suppose the resistance of the atmosphere 
against the outgoing steam was 14.7 pounds against 
78.54 square inches ; it would be equal to 1154.538, 
which absorbs J of the united pressure, and would 
show that the difference between the two factors was 
the power utilized. But we must bear in mind that 
there are other sources of resistance ; for instance, 
the compression due to the steam which does not ex- 
haust from the cylinder, but has to be forced out by 
the action of the piston, and which, in many cases, 
amounts to 3 pounds per square inch, or 235.62 
pounds for 78.54 square inches ; add this to 1154.538, 
and you have 1390.158, which, when subtracted 
from 5497.8, gives 4107.642 or 747 of the initial 
pressure. This shows the small amount of power 
utilized from a given volume of steam, and the heat 
expended in generating it. 



36 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 37 

HORSE-POWER OP STEAM-ENGINES. 

Previous to the introduction of the steam-engine, 
horses were very generally used to furnish power to 
perform various kinds of work, and especially the 
work of pumping water out of mines, raising coal, 
etc. For such purposes, several horses working to- 
gether were required. Thus, to work the pumps of 
a certain mine, five, six, seven, or even twenty-five 
horses were necessary. 

When it became apparent that a new motor (the 
steam-engine) would supersede natural or animal 
power, the idea took the form of proportioning the 
new motor to do the work of a number of horses ; 
but, as the two powers were only alike in their equal 
capacity to do the same work, it became necessary to 
refer both powers to some work of a similar char- 
acter, which could be made the basis of comparison. 

It was naturally supposed that, if a certain number 
of horses were capable of raising a certain weight 
of coal and water out of a mine, or other location, 
a steam-engine of certain proportions, propelled by 
steam of a specified number of atmospheres,* would 
do the same thing, thus the weight raised at a given 
speed could be made the common measure of the 
two powers. 

* In the early days of the steam-engine the pressure of steam 
was expressed in atmospheres, instead of pounds per square inch- 
one atmosphere being 15 pounds, two atmospheres 30 pounds, etc 
4 



88 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

It was demonstrated by experience that a horse of 
average strength, travelling at the rate of 2 J miles 
per hour, could work eight hours per day, and con- 
tinuously raise a weight of 150 pounds 100 feet high 
by means of a cable, block, and sheave, and accord- 
ingly the power of a horse was taken at the fore- 
going figures. But this rude formulae may be ex- 
pressed in other equivalent forms : The power which 
will raise 150 pounds 220 feet high per minute, will 
raise 300 pounds 110 feet high, or 33,000 pounds 1 
foot high per minute respectively. 

From the foregoing paragraph it will be easily 
understood that 33,000 pounds raised at the rate of 
one foot high in a minute is the equivalent of 150 
pounds at the rate of 220 feet per minute, or 2| 
miles per hour, and it will necessarily follow, that 
33,000 pounds raised at the rate of one foot per 
minute, expresses the power of one horse, and has 
been taken as the standard measure of power. 

It was generally admitted that the mode of desig- 
nating the power of the steam-engine should be by 
horse-power, and that one-horse power should be 
understood as power capable of raising 33,000 pounds, 
or 16 J tons, one foot high in one minute. This unit 
of power has been adopted by all manufacturers of 
steam-engines and steam users in the United States. 

There are several kinds of horse-powers referred 
to in connection with the steam-engine, viz., the 
"nominal," "indicated," and "actual or net." 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 39 

The term nominal horse-power, as before stated, 
originated at the time of the invention of the steam- 
engine ; but, nevertheless, it implies the ability to 
do a certain amount of work in a given time. 

The indicated horse-power is obtained by multi- 
plying together the mean effective pressure in the 
cylinder in pounds per square inch, the area of the 
piston in square inches, and the speed in feet per min- 
ute, and dividing the product by 33,000. 

The actual or net horse-power expresses the total 
available power of an engine, and it equals the in- 
dicated horse-power minus the amount expended in 
overcoming the friction. 

Rule. — For Finding the Horse-power of a Steam- 
engine. — Multiply the area of the piston by the aver- 
age pressure ; multiply this product by the number 
of feet the piston travels in feet per minute, and di- 
vide by 33,000 ; the quotient will be the horse-power 
of the engine. But, however accurate such calcu- 
lation may be, it simply amounts to speculation, be- 
cause we do not know whether the piston is leaky or 
not, whether the valve is steam-tight or not, if it is 
properly set, whether the valves or the ports are 
rightly proportioned, whether the engine is in line, 
or the packing too tight or too loose ; and until we 
know these things we cannot even approximate the 
power of an engine. The indicator diagram is the 
only exponent of that. 



40 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 41 

EXAMPLE. 

Diameter of cylinder in inches ... 2 

2 

Square of diameter of cylinder ... 4 

Multiplied by the decimal . . . • .7854 



Area of piston 3.1416 

Boiler pressure 60 pounds, cut-off \ stroke, 

average pressure in cylinder • . 50 

157.0800 
Travel of piston in feet per minute . . 250 

Divide by 33000) 39270.00 

Horse-power 1.19 



EXAMPLE. 

Diameter of cylinder in inches ... 4 

4 

Square of diameter of cylinder ... 16 

Multiplied by the decimal .... .7854 

Area of piston 12.5664 

Boiler pressure 60 pounds, cut-off \ stroke, 

average pressure in cylinder • • 50 

628.3200 
Travel of piston in feet per minute • • 250 



Divide by 33000) 157080.00 

Horse-power ...... 4.76 

4* 



42 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

EXAMPLE. 

Diameter of cylinder in inches . • 6 

6 

Square of diameter of cylinder . . 36 

Multiplied by the decimal . . . .7854 

Area of piston 28.2744 

Boiler pressure 60 pounds, cut-off \ 

stroke, average pressure ... 50 

1413.7200 
Travel of piston in feet per minute • 25Q 

Divided by 33000 )353430.00 

Horse-power • 10.71 



EXAMPLE. 

Diameter of cylinder in inches . , 8 

8 

Square of diameter of cylinder . . 64 

Multiplied by the decimal . . • .7854 

50.2656 
Boiler pressure 60 pounds, cut-off \ 
stroke, average pressure in cylinder 
50 pounds ....... 50 

2513.2800 
Travel of piston in feet per minute ' • 250 

Divide by 33000 )628320.00 

Horse-power 19.04 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 43 

EXAMPLE. 

Diameter of the cylinder in inches . . 10 

10 

Square of diameter of cylinder . . • 100 

Multiplied by the decimal .... .7854 

Area of piston 78.54 

Boiler pressure 60 pounds, cut-off § stroke, 

average pressure in cylinder . • 50 



3927.00 
Travel of piston in feet per minute . . 250 



Divide by . 33000 )981750.00 

Horse-power 29.75 

Rule. — For Finding the Horse-power of Steam- 
engines from Indicator Diagrams. — Multiply the 
area of the piston by its travel in feet per minute, 
and divide by 33,000. Multiply this quotient by 
the mean effective pressure obtained from the dia- 
gram. The result will show the horse-power ol the 
engine. 

Example. — Diameter of cylinder 24 inches, speed 
of piston 275 feet = 3.7699 horse-power for every 
pound of mean effective pressure per square inch; 
then 3 J 699 multiplied by 60 gives the pressure 
= 226.1940 horse-power. If the pressure was 20 
pounds per square inch the horse-power would = 
75.398, and so on 



44 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



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45 




46 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Engines too large or too small for the work to be 
performed are not as economical as if they were of 
the right size, for when the engine is too small it 
must be forced. This induces back pressure, strain- 
ing, rapid wear, waste of fuel, increased cost of 
maintenance, etc. On the other hand, if the engine 
is too large, the governor will throttle down the 
steam in the cylinder to, perhaps, one-third the 
pressure indicated by the gauge. Now, there is as 
much loss induced by the resistance of the atmos- 
phere, if the pressure of the steam is only 25 pounds 
per square inch in the cylinder, as if it was 80. 
Besides, it has been shown by experiment that, in 
an engine working at half its capacity, the condensa- 
tion is more in proportion than it would be if the 
engine was working up to its full capacity. From 
the time the steam is cut off, the piston and walls 
of the cylinder commence to cool rapidly, and must 
be heated up when admission takes place on the 
return stroke, which induces condensation. . 

The power of a steam-engine may be increased 
in three ways ; first, by raising the pressure, pro- 
viding the boiler possesses sufficient strength to 
guarantee safety ; second, by increasing the speed 
of the engine. But to effect this change the size of 
counter-pulley must be increased, so that the shaft- 
ing in the factory may run at the same speed as 
formerly. While the engine will run faster, to 
increase the speed of the engine it will be necessary 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 47 

to increase the size of the pulley on the governor 
shaft, so that the governor will run more slowly 
and allow the engine to travel faster. Third, by 
substituting a new cylinder, of large diameter, for 
the old one. But the increase in the diameter of a 
new cylinder has a very narrow margin. Suppose 
the diameter of the old cylinder was 10 inches, its 
area would be 78.54 inches. If the diameter of a 
new cylinder was 12 inches, its area would be 
113.0976 inches, which makes a difference of 34.55*76 
inches, which, if divided by 4, the number of square 
inches allowed for horse-power in the area of cyl- 
inders, would make an increase of nearly 8 horse- 
power in the engine. 

But it must be remembered that the substitution 
of the new cylinder for the old one involves the ne- 
cessity of a new steam-chest, piston and rod-valve, 
and valve-rod/ It must also be understood that the 
increase in the diameter of the new cylinder should 
never exceed two inches, otherwise the cross-head, 
guides, connecting-rod, crank-pin, crank, and crank- 
shaft would be too light, and liable to spring under 
the strain to which they would be subjected ; be- 
sides, such bad proportions would look antique. 

Another practical way of increasing the power of 
a steam-engine is to attach a condenser to it, and 
convert it into a condensing engine, which will ena- 
ble it to yield at least ten per cent, more power than 
when it was worked non-condensing. In large es- 



48 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

tablishments it is always best to lay the foundation 
for two engines, even though one may be sufficient 
for the time being. This arrangement obviates the 
inconveniences of excavating for a foundation when- 
ever it may become necessary to increase the steam- 
power. It is also necessary to provide room for any 
increase in boiler power which possibly may become 
necessary. 

To alter a steam-engine from a non-condensing to 
a condensing engine is only a trifling affair, and, in 
point of cost, should not be considered as compared 
with the cost of the water in localities where it has 
to be purchased, in view of the fact that it takes 
about 26 times as much water to condense steam as 
the water from which it was generated. Suppose, 
for instance, that one cubic foot of water is converted 
into steam at atmospheric pressure of 15 pounds per 
square inch ; the volume of steam would be equal to 
1100 cubic feet; then it would require about 26 cubic 
feet of water to condense the steam. 

Suppose, again, that we fill an ordinary tea-kettle 
with water, and convert it into steam at atmospheric 
pressure ; the result will be 1T00 kettles full of steam. 
Nov/, if this volume were contained in one vessel, it 
would require 26 kettles full of cold water to con- 
dense it. 

It will be seen from the foregoing that a condens- 
ing-engine is only capable of producing economical 
results when water is abundant and free, as, when 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 49 

the injection water has to be paid for, its cost over- 
balances the saving in fuel. This is proper when a 
non-condensing engine has the advantage over the 
condensing, as the former may be set up in any 
locality where sufficient water can be procured to 
furnish the necessary volume of steam, while the 
condensing-engine requires an abundance of water 
at a nominal cost of pumping it. 

ECONOMY AND WASTE IN THE STEAM-ENGINE. 

It may be said that the steam-engine is a good 
servant, a bad master, and an expensive motor ; but, 
nevertheless, it cannot be denied that, on account of 
certain conditions inherent in it, it has superseded 
the water-wheel and the wind-mill, and demonstrated 
the fact that steam can never be dispensed with as 
an agent. 

In Watt's time, an evaporation of one cubic foot, 
or 62.5 pounds of water, and the consumption of 
20 pounds of good fuel, were the factors generally 
admitted to be equal to the development of one 
horse-power in the steam-engine ; but at the present 
time, a consumption of from 2 i to 3 pounds of coal, 
and an evaporation of 18 pounds of water, will pro- 
duce the same result in the best class of American 
automatic cut-off steam-engines. There are even 
instances where a horse-power has been developed 
by the consumption of 2 pounds of coal, and an 
5 D 



50 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 51 

evaporation of 16 pounds of water; but these are 
extreme cases, and the conditions under which they 
were accomplished never enter into or are realized 
in ordinary practice. 

When we come to compare the latter results with 
the duty a perfect steam-engine should perform, we 
find that we are far from reaching such results. 
This may he explained as follows : It has been es- 
tablished by scientific investigation that the con- 
sumption of one pound of pure coal, if none of its 
heat is lost, will raise the temperature of one pound 
of water 14.220° Fah., or will raise the tempera- 
ture of 14,220 pounds of water 1° Fah. Because, 
as the heating of one pound of water 1° demands 
the conversion into heat of a quantity of mechan- 
ical energy equal to ??0 foot-pounds, therefore the 
heating of 14,220 pounds 1° will require the conver- 
sion of ?Y2x 14.220== 10,9??, 840 foot-pounds, which 
is the mechanical equivalent of one pound of pure 
coal burned without waste. This shows that if one 
pound of pure coal is burned in one minute, it should 
be applied with absolute economy to the performance 
of work that it should develop 332.6 horse-power; 
or, if burned in an hour, then it should develop one- 
sixtieth of this, or 5 J horse-power per hour, or 1 
horse-power should be developed by the burning of 
(approximated) one-fifth of a pound of coal. 

But, nevertheless, even in view of the foregoing 
facts, instead of indulging in mild theories, or look- 



</2 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

ing for a machine that will supersede the steam- 
engine, we ought to direct all our energies and 
mechanical genius to its improvement, even though 
we may be satisfied that we will never be able to 
produce a perfect steam-engine, or realize the result 
which sound theory has established. 

Now, if we take the condensing-engine, either 
single or compound, for investigation, we discover 
that, while one-fifth of a pound of coal should de- 
velop a horse-power in a class of machines so scien- 
tifically designed, carefully constructed, and well 
managed, it takes from 2 to 2 J pounds of coal per 
horse-power per hour, and from 16 to 20 pounds 
of water ; besides, in the development of power and 
economical results, there does not appear to be much 
advantage in the compound over the simple engine, 
or vice versa? while the cost of the former is nearly 
twice that of the latter. 

Doubtless, the steam-engine, from its very advent, 
was an object of speculation and, perhaps, delusion. 
It has been asserted over and over again, by vision- 
ary theorists, that the days of the steam-engine are 
numbered. Perkins' theory was indorsed by some 
eminent engineers, but the attempt to put it into 
practice was similar to the efforts that were at one 
time made to convert steam into a gas by super- 
heating, and was called stam. 

The advocates of such ill-founded theories forgot 
that, when the steam was robbed of all saturation 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 53 

by superheating, it required a continual supply of 
lubrication, and that it produced rust and wasting 
of the material. These theorists also forgot that it 
was necessary to discover a new material before their 
ideas could be practically applied, or be productive 
of satisfactory and economical results. 

Then, again, we are advised of the wonderful 
results which are destined to be produced from the 
high-speed engine by compression, by re-evaporating, 
etc. These theories, when brought face to face with 
practice, which experience has demonstrated to pro- 
duce the best results, frequently vanish. 

If we carry extremely high steam pressure, we 
should have boilers, made of extra material, and first- 
class workmanship, which increases the first cost. 
If we run an engine at an extra high speed, it must 
be built of good material, carefully and accurately 
constructed, and intelligently managed, and even 
then the wear and tear, leakage, etc., will increase 
the cost of maintenance. Of course there are cir- 
cumstances under which high pressures must of 
necessity be carried, and a high piston speed at- 
tained, but they are special cases, and generally 
arise to meet certain requirements. 

Practical experience has shown that extraordinary 
high pressure induces leakage and waste by radiation, 
and the wear and tear resulting from extraordinary 
piston speed. Moderately high pressure, piston 
speeds, and average points of cut-off, have given the 
5* 



54 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

most satisfactory results in all classes of steam-en- 
gines — stationary, locomotive, or marine. There is 
nothing gained by recklessness, or by running any 
machine at a higher speed than it can maintain 
without vibration, by rapid wear of the material 
and the liability to break down. 

All engines, for whatever purpose used, are either 
simple or compound. All engines may be divided 
into two classes, single-acting and double-acting, or 
reciprocating; the latter takes steam at both ends 
of the cylinder, while the single-acting takes only 
at one end. The Cornish beam engine, which is 
principally employed for pumping purposes, belongs 
to the latter class. Steam is admitted to the upper 
end of the cylinder, and presses the piston down to 
about seven-eighths of the stroke, when it escapes 
to the condenser. The piston is brought back to its 
position to receive the steam for another stroke by 
the inertia of a number of weights on the other end 
of the beam. These weights equal the weight of 
the piston and piston-rod, the cross-heads and main 
link, and the column of water to be elevated. 



DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONDENSING AND NON- 
CONDENSING ENGINES. 

The high pressure or non-condensing steam- 
engine was originally an American idea. Oliver 
Evans, of Philadelphia, and other mechanical engi- 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 55 




THE DIAMOND BAXTER ENGINE, 



56 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

neers, early foresaw its great advantages on account 
of its lightness, its simplicity, the great speed at 
which it might be run, the high pressures that were 
available in its employment, and from the fact that 
it might be set up on a mountain or a valley, a cellar 
or a garret, or wherever sufficient water or fuel was 
attainable. 

Now, on the other hand, while Watt's condensing- 
engine was expensive in point of first cost and main- 
tenance, heavy, burdensome, and inefficient on ac- 
count of its slow movements, since the days of Oliver 
Evans the high pressure non-condensing steam-en- 
gine has been universally adopted as the great 
American prime mover, as it ever must continue to 
be, because there are certain conditions embodied in 
its employment which will never admit of its being 
superseded by any other motor. 



DESIGN OF STEAM-ENGINES. 

Formerly the designs of steam-engines embraced 
a greater variety than they do at the present time ; 
the two most popular designs are the horizontal and 
vertical. The former is more of a favorite for sta- 
tionary purposes, while the latter is preferred for 
marine purposes, and also for locations where econ- 
omy of space is an object, as in cities,- stores, etc. 

The beam engine, which was at one time a great 
favorite with engineers, is rarely used in manufac- 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



57 




THE GREENFIELD YACHT ENGINE. 



58 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

turing establishments now ; it is principally confined 
to ferryboats and river and coastwise steamers. The 
causes which induced its disuse have been explained 
under the head of paddle-wheel and screw propulsion, 
on page 165. The side-lever engine, like the steeple, 
back-action, geared, trunk, oscillating, and cradle mo- 
tion, has almost disappeared, as has also the single- 
acting or Cornish. All the foregoing designs were in- 
tended to meet some special requirement, but expe- 
rience has shown that the most available designs in 
use at the present day are the horizontal and vertical, 
as before stated. These meet all the requirements of 
land and marine service. 

PORTABLE AND SEMI-STEAM-ENGINES. 

Portable steam-engines are a class of machinery 
which may be moved about from place to place, as 
circumstances may require. Small ones are fre- 
quently placed on skids, or on a platform, and may 
be either carried or rolled to the required locality or 
position, while others are mounted on wheels, and 
may be transported from one locality to another, by 
means of oxen or horses. 

The agricultural portable engine, such as is shown 
on page 61, is not only a great convenience, but 
also an absolute necessity in grain-producing parts 
of the country, as they are available for threshing, 
sawing wood, or drawing water for domestic, manu- 



THE YOTJNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



59 




60 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

facturing, and agricultural purposes, or for irrigation. 
These classes of engines are destined to promote the 
progress of agriculture in countries like America, 
with its extensive prairies, and Russia, with her im- 
mense steppes. Such machines can be used not only 
for threshing, but for loading, unloading, and trans- 
ferring hay, grain, cotton, and other valuable agri- 
cultural products, and pressing them into bales or 
packages suitable for shipment and transportation. 

SMALL STEAM-ENGINES. 

The small steam-engines, like the high-pressure 
and the automatic cut-off engines and 
the tubular boiler, is an American idea. 
There are more of this class of ma- 
chines in use for light manufacturing 
purposes in this country than in all 
the nations of Europe, American 
Payne & Son's mechanic an( j manufacturers early 

Vertical ^ 

Engines and foresaw its advantages over horse-, 
Boilers. ma n-, and dog-power, which is in such 
common use in the different countries of Europe. 

The small steam-engine may be adapted to an al- 
most endless variety of purposes, such as grinding 
grist for family use, running knitting-, sewing-, and 
braiding-machines, churning, blowing blacksmiths' 
bellows, and a great variety of other operations, 
which are now performed by hand, at double or 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 61 







THE BLYMYER PORTABLE ENGINE. 



The above cut represents the Blymyer Portable Engine, show- 
ing the vertical boiler with base, fire-door, gauge- cocks, pump, 
suction and discharge-pipes, safety-valve, steam-gauge, smoke- 
box bonnet and engine attached to the boiler, with attendant iw 
charge. 
6 



62 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

even treble the cost at which it may be performed 
by steam-power. It is only reasonable to suppose 
that the small steam-engine will supersede animal 
and human muscular power. 

The rapidity and cheapness with which certain 
mechanical operations may be performed, is the basis 
on which their success depends, in an economical 
point of view, consequently the perfection and gen- 
eral use of the small steam-engine is an object of 
great interest to the inventor, manufacturer, and 
economist. 

TRACTION STEAM-ENGINES. 

The traction steam-engine, similar to that shown 
on page 63, is destined to come into very general 
use, and render efficient aid to agriculture and com- 
merce. The difficulties which interfered with their use 
in early trials are being successfully overcome and 
remedied ; consequently it is not at all improbable 
that the number of them required will increase rap- 
idly, and that they will be so improved as to be 
available for purposes for which they were not 
originally intended. 

Some of the Amoskeag fire-engines are traction 
engines, and capable of propelling themselves to 
fires on ordinary paved streets or macadamized 
roads. The illustration at the top of the next page 
shows the traction engine with broad wheel tires, 
on the face of which are teeth or cogs, which pre- 






THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. b3 

vent the wheels from slipping on smooth surfaces ; 
but when such engines are used for agricultural pur- 




THE LANE & BODEY TRACTION OR SELF-PROPELLING 
STEAM-ENGINE. 

poses, the tires are generally made broad and smooth. 
The wheels of traction engines generally receive 
their motion by an endless chain, which engages in 
two ratchet wheels, one on the crank-shaft and the 
other on the driving-axle. Gearing may be used 
instead of a chain. 

The wonderful improvement that has been made 
in the steam-engine in the past quarter of a century 
may be attributed to the abundant production of 
suitable materials for its construction, to the great 
variety and perfection of machinists' tools, to the 
inventive genius of the American mechanic, and 
to the general prosperity of the country, which 



64 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

encouraged the manufacturer to produce a good 
article, and enabled the consumer to purchase it. 

So far as symmetry of design and accurate pro- 
portions are concerned, the steam-engine, like the 
sewing-machine, the rifle, and revolver, will hardly 
undergo much improvement in the future. It is to 
the economy, and effective working of the steam, or 
the amount of work that may be developed from a 
certain volume of steam, that the engineer must 
direct his attention in the future. Many of the 
best classes of automatic cut-off engines in use at 
the present time are probably as perfect in point 
of design, proportion, and workmanship, as ever 
steam-engines will be. Nevertheless, great im- 
provements may be effected in the manner of ap- 
plying the steam to the piston, realizing the benefits 
of expansion, and preventing condensation resulting 
from radiation. 

The modern steam-engine far surpasses anything 
that was anticipated in the early days of steam. 
Nevertheless, we must not engage in wild specu- 
lation as to what may be realized in the future, 
because the economy of the compound engine, and 
the high-speed engine, after years of experiment, 
remains an open and undecided question. All 
steam-engines, whether receiving the motion from 
steam, gas, caloric, or heated air, are termed heat 
engines. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



65 




PROPORTIONS OF STEAM-ENGINES. 

Area of the crank at the centre should equal that 
of the crank-shaft. 

Boss of the crank should equal twice the diame- 
ter of the shaft-journal. 

Breadth of the strap should equal 1.1 times the 
diameter of the pin plus .0625. 



66 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Breadth of the gib and key should equal 1.1 times 
the diameter of the pin. 

Depth of the piston rings should equal .25 the 
diameter of the cylinder. 

Depth of the boss of the crank should equal the 
diameter of the shaft multiplied by -fa. 

Diam. of piston -pod should equal .125 diam. of cyl- 
inder for short-, and .2 diam. for long-stroke engines. 

Diameter of crank-shaft should be .4 that of the 
cylinder, if wrought-iron, or .5, if of cast-iron. 

Diameter of the crank-pin should be .25 that of 
the cylinder. 

Diameter of the wrist or cross-head pin should 
equal that of the crank-pin. 

Diameter of the connecting-rod, in the neck, 
should equal that of the piston-rod, and increase .25 
in diameter to the foot from the neck to the middle. 

Diameter of the eccentric-rod, in the neck, should 
be 1.25 times the diameter of the valve-rod, and 
should increase 1.25 inch in diameter to the foot 
of the eccentric. 

Diameter of the valve-rod should be .1 that of 
the cylinder. 

Diameter of the boss of the crank, if of cast-iron, 
should equal twice that of the shaft-journal. 

Diameter of the crank at the pin should equal 
twice the diameter of the pin. 

Diameter of the steam-pipe should be .25 that of 
the cylinder. 



* THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 67 

Diameter of the exhaust-pipe should be .3 that of 
the cylinder. 

Diameter of the rock-shaft bearing, if subjected 
to torsion strain, should be .33 the diameter of the 
engine-shaft. 

Diameter of the rock-shaft pin should be equal to 
the diameter of the valve-stem at its thickest part. 

Distance from the key-slot to the end of the strap 
should be .06 of the diameter of the wrist, or crank- 
pin. 

The clearance should equal one-half the diameter 
of the crank-pin plus 2 divided by 16. 

Length of the crank-shaft bearing should be equal 
to 1.5 its diameter, and in some cases it should be 
twice. 

Length of the cross-head bearings should be equal 
to ,66 the diameter of the cylinder, and their breadth 
.205 of the same. 

Length of the crank-pin should be .215 the diam- 
eter of the cylinder. 

Length of the' rock-shaft bearing should be equal 
to .5 the diameter of the engine-shaft. 

Thickness of the follower-plate should be the same 
as that of the cylinder. 

Thickness of the piston should be .25 the diameter 
of the cylinder, plus twice its thickness. 

Thickness of the crank should equal the diameter 
of the shaft-journal multiplied by .6 

Thickness of the straps on the stub end, or con- 



68 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

necting-rod boxes, should be equal to .44 of the diam- 
eter of the wrist and crank-pins ; but for engines trav- 
elling at a high speed, and requiring great strength, 
they ought to be .5 the diameter of the pins. 

Thickness of gib and key should be equal to .25 
of the crank and wrist-pins. 

It will be observed that the straps are thicker in 
the section in which the key and gib are inserted 
than they are in the yoke, which encircles the box. 
This is to compensate for the amount of material 
removed in forming the mortise for the key and gib. 

It must be understood that the foregoing propor- 
tions are only approximates for engines of moderate 
size. 

FLY-WHEELS. 

The fly-wheel is an absolute necessity in the case 
of engines used for manufacturing purposes, as it 
would be impossible to dispense with it, especially 
in the case of single-cylinder engines, as the crank 
would stop on the centre without the influence of 
the fly-wheel. Even in the case of double-cylinder 
engines, which have their cranks at right angles, and 
where one pulls the other off the centre, it is neces- 
sary to have a fly-wheel. 

The functions of a fly-wheel are to store up a cer- 
tain amount of power and give it out as required ; 
consequently, the larger the diameter and the higher 
the velocity the steadier will be the speed. Such 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 69 

conditions, however desirable, are not always attain- 
able. Some engineers claim that the work stored up 
in the fly-wheel should equal the work developed by 
the engine during seven strokes. If the engine runs 
at a high speed, the fly-wheel may be lighter and of 
less diameter than if it ran slow. 

Fop rolling-mills, particularly steel-mills, for large 
flouring-mills, and for blast-furnace engines, the bal- 
ance-wheel must be heavy and of large diameter. 
It is often found necessary to introduce another bal- 
ance-wheel on a shaft, when the power required is 
very irregular, for the purpose of regulating the 
speed. Any increase in the diameter of a fly-wheel, 
even of the same weight of metal and material, will 
give a corresponding influence to the speed. Sup- 
pose a fly-wheel to be 10 feet in diameter, and to 
weigh 2000 pounds ; if the diameter was increased 
to 12 feet with the same amount of metal, it would 
have a more controlling influence over the speed. 

The diameter of fly-wheels varies in proportion 
to the object which they are intended to accomplish, 
from 48 times the length of the stroke up to twice ; 
but the diameter of fly-wheels is often determined 
by considerations of space, or room, to be occupied. 
In the early days of the steam-engine it was cus- 
tomary to have a fly-wheel and a driving-pulley on 
the end of the shaft, but, according to modern prac- 
tice, the driving-pulley is made to meet both require- 
ments. 



I 



70 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



The following pule will give the diameter and 
weight of fly-wheels for ordinary speeds at average 
pressures, particularly for automatic cut-off engines, 
in which the average pressure does not much exceed 
40 pounds per square inch. Divide the constant 
rule number 6,500,000 by the diameter of the wheel 
in feet ; divide this quotient again by the square of 
the number of revolutions per minute ; the resulting 
quotient will be the number of pounds per horse- 
power for the rim of the wheel. 



THE STEAM-PISTON. 

Pistons may be divided into three classes — the 

elliptic-spring, the patent, and steam or self-adjusting. 

The first is the oldest design of me- 

j^3===Ac|n tallic piston-packing, having been 

I m I tr * ec * unc * er ver J var yi n g circum- 

Vv J stances, and subjected to the severest 

tests, and yet, like the slide-valve, 
after an experience of forty years, 
has proven to be superior to any 
other device or arrangement, espe- 
cially for high-speed engines. 

The steam -piston, for which so 
much has been claimed, when intro- 
duced, has not proved a success, evi- 
dence of which may be found in the 
fact that it has not been very ex- 






THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



71 




72 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

tensively adopted. Some designs of patent pistons 
possess some very desirable features, but, as before 
stated, the elliptic-spring piston, with set-screws and 
jam-nuts, is in more general use than all other inno- 
vations combined. 

The piston has been a source of more waste and 
annoyance to the steam user, and anxiety to the 
engineer, than any other adjunct of a steam-engine ; 
consequently, the Patent-Office is lumbered with 
devices which are claimed would remedy the defects 
in the piston and induce better economy. With 
very few exceptions, they have all failed to meet 
the requirements for which they were intended. 

The strains on the piston-rod of a steam-engine 
are either tensile or compressive. Some of these, 
however, bear no relation to the steam pressure ; so 
that the diameter of the piston should be made the 
main factor in determining the size of the rod. The 
diameter of the piston-rod of the Centennial Corliss 
engine was one-sixth the diameter of the cylinder, 
which was supposed to be a good proportion. 

Rule. — For Finding the Distance the Piston 
Travels Ahead of its Central Position on the Out- 
board Stroke, and Lags Behind on the Inboard.— 
Subtract the square of the length of the crank from 
the square of the length of the connecting-rod; 
find the square root of the difference or remainder, 
and subtract it from the length of the connecting- 
?od. The remainder will be the variation of the 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 73 

piston from a central position when the crank is at 
right angles to the centre line of the engine. 





EXAMPLE. 




Length of crank . 


. 12 inches. 


Length of connecting-rod . 


. 72 " 


Then72 2 = 


= 5184 




" 12 2 = 


= 144 






5040 == 70.992 inches and 




72 






70.992 





1.008, which is 

the variation in inches. 

Cross-Heads. — The length between the piston- 
head and the extreme travel of the cross-head must 
be considered when determining the strength and 
bearing of the cross-head on the guide, as aiso the 
weight to be sustained, the speed, character of ma- 
terial, and whether the engine is under or over 
stroke. Cross-heads of ordinary engines are gen- 
erally made of cast-iron ; but for those which have 
to sustain a great strain, they are frequently made 
of wrought-iron or steel, especially when there is a 
liability to break down, and inadequate facilities for 
repairs. 

THE STEAM-ENGINE CYLINDER. 

The cylinder is one of the most important, as 
well a# the most expensive, parts of the engine. 



74 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



This arises from the fact that it must be made of 
good material, and be accurately bored and fitted. 
It is also the only part of a steam-engine which, 
in case of accident, cannot be successfully repaired 
The strains to which it 
is subjected are of two 
kinds, viz. : tensile, and 
those due to expansion 
and contraction. 

A slight flaw, crack, 
or defect existing in 
any other part of the 
engine, that could be 
repaired or duplicated 
at a moderate expense, 
would render the cylin- 
der useless, and neces- 
sitate a new one, which 
would be attended by loss of time, interruption to 
business, and great expense in proportion to its size. 
The diameter of a cylinder for any engine of a given 
horse-power, may be found by the following rule : 

Multiply 13,000 by the number of horse-power 
required ; multiply the travel of piston decided on 
in feet per minute by the average pressure in 
pounds per square inch ; then divide the first pro- 
duct b}^ the second ; divide the remainder by .7854, 
and the square root of the latter will be the requireo 
diameter. 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



75 



The annexed cut represents the Kriebel vibrat« 
ing valueless engine, 
which, it will be ob- 
served, differs from 
any of the same 
class heretofore in- 
troduced, as the 
steam does not enter 
or escape through 
trunnions, but 
through the bottom 
of the cylinder, which 
vibrates in a semi- 
circular cup. The 
engine is very simple 
in design, and in- 
genious in its me- 
chanical arrange- 
ment. The crank- 
shaft passes directly 
through the boiler, 
to which both the 
inside and outside 
pillow-blocks are riv- 
eted. 

The engine seems to possess the advantages of 
simplicity and novelty, and is well adapted to a great 
variety of purposes on account of its compactness 
and fewness of parts. 




SECTIONAL VIEW OF KRIEBEL 

VIBRATING VALVELESS 

ENGINE. 



76 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE PROPER THICKNESS OP STEAM CYLINDERS OF 
STEAM-ENGINES OP DIFFERENT DIAMETERS, INCLUDING THE 
NECESSARY ALLOWANCE FOR RE-BORING. 



Diam. of 
Cylinder. 


Thickness. 


Diam. of 
Cylinder. 


Thickness. 


6 inch. 

8 " 

9 " 

10 " 

11 " 

12 " 


f inch. 

h ;;■ 

i 

¥ :: 

8 
if " 


14 inch. 

15 " 

17 " 

18 " 

19 " 
21 " 


1 inch. 

ia ;; 

it " 



Rule. — For Finding the Thickness of Steam- 
engine Cylinders. — Divide the diameter of the 
cylinder plus 2 by 16 ; deduct y-i^ parts of the 
diameter from the quotient; the remainder will 
give the proper thickness. 



BED-PLATES AND HOUSINGS. 

Bed -plates may be designated under four names 
— the box, the side-bed, the girder-frame, and the 
Tangye. The box bed-plate is the oldest design. 
Its strongest recommendation is simplicity of form, 
but it has the great objection that the engine is 
more influenced by expansion and contraction than 
in any other design, consequently the box bed-plate 
is being fast superseded by the others above men- 
tioned. 

The side- bed is of recent origin, and answers a 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 7J ■ 




THE TWISS YACHT ENGINE. 

A shows the cylinder; B the steam-chest; C the steam-chest boil' 
net: D the gub-lever; E the reversing lever; F the housing; G the 
link, with the block at mid-gear ; H H shows the eccentric rods ; I 
shows the base; J J the bed-plate; K the fly-wheel; L the coupling 
which connects the engine and propeller shafts; Mthe outer pillow- 
block ; N the reach-rod ; O the cylinder lubricator. The Twiss yacht 
engines have an excellent reputation. 
7* 



78 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

very good purpose for ordinary sized engines, and 
moderate speeds and pressures. Though it has 
been adopted by many noted steam-engine builders, 
it was never employed for general purposes, because 
it does not possess sufficient rigidity to meet certain 
requirements. Nevertheless, it embodies many con- 
veniences, which are not embraced in either the box 
or some other designs. Like the box, it is influenced 
by expansion and contraction. 

The girder, op Corliss frame. — This design has 
been more universally adopted by mechanical engi- 
neers in this country and Europe than any other. 
This arises from the fact that it possesses rigidity, 
is less influenced by expansion and contraction, and 
affords more convenient arrangements for adjust- 
ment than any other pattern. In fact, it would be 
difficult to distribute a certain amount of material 
in any form of bed-plate that would embody such 
strength, rigidity, and lightness as is embraced in 
the Corliss frame, because the push and pull is 
either compression or tensile strain, and are always 
in the direction of the strongest point. 

The Tangye frame is particularly adapted to high- 
speed engines. Its only recommendation is its stiff- 
ness ; its objectionable features are, that it is difficult 
either to pack or keep clean, in consequence of the 
hood, which projects over the stuff ng-box, and the 
shortness of the connections, which bring the guides, 
eross-head, front cylinder-head, and stuffing-box in 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 79 

such close proximity. Whether it will be continued 
in use or not depends on whether the high-speed en- 
gine will prove a success in an economical point of 
view. 

In the box and side bed-plates the cylinder is at- 
tached by means of flanges resting on the upper side 
of the frame, while in the Corliss and Tangye the 
cylinder is connected to the bed-plates by means of 
butt-joints. The design of the frame of the Buckeye 
engine is very handsome. 

The upright frames of vertical engines, whether 
employed for stationary or marine purposes, are 
termed the housing, while those of beam engines, 
such as are used for side-wheel steamers and ferries, 
are called gallows frames. * 

THE CRANK. 

The crank is the device most generally employed 
for converting parallel into 
rotary motion. All cranks 
may be divided into three 
classes, viz., single, double, 
and disc, which are again 

divisible into three parts, Single Crank and Eccentric. 

i.e., the boss, the web, and the hub. The boss is that 
part of the crank into which the shaft is inserted ; 
the hub is the part which contains the crank-pin ; 
and the web the intervening space between the two. 




80 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Each of the three designs of cranks above men- 
tioned have advantages peculiar to themselves. 

The double crank is adapted for marine purposes, 
pumping engines, etc., as there is a pillow-block on 
each side of the crank-pin, which imparts rigidity 




DOUBLE CRANK. 

and strength to it, and affords facilities for connect- 
ing it with the propeller or paddle-wheel shaft, as the 
case may be. 

The single crank is light and convenient, graceful 
in its movement, and, when well proportioned and 
well fitted, is better adapted and more suitable for 
stationary engines than any other design. 

The disc crank possesses this advantage, that 
when used for high-speed engines it affords better 
facilities for balancing the weight of the crank-pin, 
half the connecting-rod, the stub-end box, the key, 
gib, and strap, than either the single or double crank. 

An idea formerly prevailed among engineers that 
the employment of the crank for converting parallel 
into rotary motion induced a loss of power, but it is 
generally admitted by mechanics at the present time 
that such is not the case, and that the power trans* 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 81 

mitted to the crank exactly represents that exerted 
by the steam in the cylinder against the piston, less 
the friction. 

There are four points in the revolution of the 
crank — two full power, and two dead. At the two 
former the crank has its greatest leverage, and the 
greatest pressure is exerted against the piston ; while 
at the two latter the crank has no leverage, and the 
steam is entirely shut off from the cylinder, and there 
is no pressure against the piston, consequently the 
crank has the same power during the whole stroke 
in proportion to the force expended. 

The crank of a steam-engine moves six times as 
far while the piston is travelling the 
first inch of the stroke, as it does while 
it is making the middle inch ; a little 
over twice as far while the piston is 
making the second inch ; a trifle over 

% i ,,.,. „ , ., ,, . DISC CRANK. 

one and a half times as far while the pis- 
ton is moving the third inch ; and less than one and a 
half times as far while the piston is making the fourth 
inch. It also travels less when the piston is making 
the last inch of the stroke than it does while it is 
making the first. 

The cut on page 82 shows the position of the piston 
in the cylinder when the crank is at half stroke. It 
will be observed that the piston is ahead of its 
proper position throughout the forward stroke, and 
that it must of necessity lay behind its position on 
F 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



np=gQ p 



ILaui 



4 



:®3 




CRANK AT WHOLE STROKE. 




L 



=fi= 



-A- 



CRANK TRAVELLING INBOARD, OR UNDER. 




CRANK MOVING OUTBOARD, OR OVER. 



. THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 83 

the return stroke ; that the full points of power are 
not on exactly the opposite sides of the diameter of 
the circle described by the crank, and that a straight 
line, passing through the centre of the crank-shaft, 
cannot intersect both points. From this it will be 
seen that the piston is not in the middle of the cylin- 
der when the crank is at right angles or half-stroke. 

THE ECCENTRIC. 

The eccentric is frequently termed a cam, which is 
evidently a mistake, as the term cam 
has no definite meaning. It may have 
two, three, or more movements, as in 
the case of the sewing-machine, reap- 
er, mowing-machine, etc., while the 
eccentric has invariably only one. 

The eccentric is simply a crank, and a crank of 
the same throw will fulfil precisely the same func- 
tions as an eccentric. The utility of the eccentric 
over the crank arises from the fact that it is more 
practicable and convenient for special purposes, be- 
cause it may be placed in the middle of the line of 
shafting, where it would be impossible to employ the 
crank. 

Eccentric and valve-rod connections should be 
viewed in the light of small cranks and long con- 
necting-rods, because the eccentric will move in pre- 
cisely the same manner, and embody the same irreg- 




84 THE ^OUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

ularities, through the full length of its stroke, as 
the piston and crank connection does in the progress 
of its travel from one extremity to the other. The 
position of the valve will be in advance of one-half 
of the stroke, where it would lag behind on the 
other half in precisely the same manner that the 
piston does in the cylinder. 

The term "angular advance" of the eccentric 
means the advance at which it would stand ahead of 
the position which would bring the side-valve in the 
middle of the stroke when the crank was at a dead 
centre. The throw of the eccentric is twice the 
width of one port with twice the amount of " lap " 
added, or it is equal to both port openings and twice 
the "lap." Suppose the port was one inch, and a 
" lap " half-inch, the throw of the eccentric would 
necessarily need to be three inches to give a full 
steam opening. When the link is employed as a 
reversing-gear, two eccentrics are used, one of which 
is termed the forward and the other the backward 
eccentric ; but on ferry-boats there is only one eccen- 
tric used ; it turns on the shaft, on which there is a 
stop, which engages a dog on the eccentric, and holds 
it in the right position for either the backward or 
forward motion. See Adjustment of Eccentric^ 
page 79. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK 85 

THE LINK. 

The link is more extensively employed as n revers- 
ing gear than any other device, and largely on loco- 
motive, also marine engines of limited size as a cut- 
off : when used for this purpose, however, the travel 
of the valve is necessarily reduced by each increase 
of lead owing to change in position of link and thereby 
retarding the exhaust. 

The terms full gear and mid gear designate the 
position of the link. When it is at full gear, the 
block is at the extreme end, either for the forward 
or backward motion ; when it is in mid gear, the 
block is in the centre of the link, and the valve in 
the centre of its travel. Under the last condition 
neither admission nor release can occur. 

All links may be divided into three classes — the 
lifting link, the stationary, and the Walshaert. The 
first has many advantages over the other two, con- 
sequently it is in most general use. In its action 
two eccentrics are employed, one for the forward 
and the other for the backward motion, while in the 
stationary link only one eccentric is necessary. 

A stationary engine may be reversed by simply 
placing the crank on the dead centre, removing the 
bonnet of the steam-chest, loosening the eccentric, 
and turning around in the direction in which it is 
desired the engine should run, until the lead of the 
valve shows the same opening that it did on the 
8 



86 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

other end, before the eccentric was moved. Then 
make the eccentric fast, and place the crank on the 
other centre, to ascertain if the lead is equal ; if not, 
the difference in the lead must be divided. Under 
such circumstances, the condition of admission and 
release will be reversed, as the steam end before the 
eccentric was moved will become the exhaust end, 
and vice versa. 



CONNECTING-ROD BOXES. 

The connecting-rod is that part of a steam-engine 
which transmits the pressure exerted in the cylinder 
by the steam to the crank-pin through the medium 
of the cross-head, and converts the parallel motion 
of the piston into the rotary motion of the crank, in 
reciprocating engines. Connecting-rods were for- 
merly made of wood, with iron straps, and single 
keys at each end. In the early days of the steam- 
engine there was no cotter, and gib, as it is termed 
in modern literature, used. 

Connecting-rods are usually made with a swell in 
the centre, the object of which is to prevent springing. 
The increase in the swell, from the neck to the cen- 
tre, is explained under the head of the proportions 
of different parts of steam-engines, on page 65. In 
the best specimens of modern practice, however, a 
connecting-rod is frequently made flat and of the 
same proportions all through ; but whether experi- 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 87 

ence has shown that this form possesses advantages 
over the round swell rod, or whether its introduc- 
tion is due to the fancy or imagination of designing 
engineers, has never been satisfactorily explained. 




KRIEBEL'S VIBRATORY CYLINDER VALVELESS YACHT 
ENGINE. 

The main connecting-rods of locomotives are in- 
variably flat, as are also the parallel rods, while the 
connecting-rods of marine engines are invariably 
round. These two latter classes of engines require 
great strength in all their proportions. It seems 



88 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOR. 

strange that the builders of one class should have 
adopted flat rods, while those of the other adopted 
the round. For long-stroke engines, such as are 
used on paddle-wheel steamers, ferries, etc., the 
round rod is probably the most desirable, as it pos- 
sesses more rigidity than the flat. 

The connecting-rod or stub-end boxes are the 
boxes which connect the wrist and crank-pins with 
the connecting-rod, by means of a strap, gib, and 
key, which is a very convenient adjustment, al- 
though, in the case of locomotives and high-speed 
engines, it is customary to pass a bolt through an 
oblong hole in the strap and stub, which provides 
additional security in case the key should become 
loose. 

The strap which secures the connecting-rod boxes 
to the cross-head, wrist, and crank-pin, was formerly 
made thinner in the yoke than in the region of the 
key and gib. This was to compensate for the 
amount of material removed in making the mortise 
for the key and gib. This arrangement, however, 
added very materially to the expense of fitting up, 
consequently it has been partly abandoned, and the 
straps in the best modern steam-engines are now 
made of uniform thickness all through. 

Connecting-rod boxes are generally made of gun- 
metal, government brass, or red metal, which is in 
the proportion of about 9 of copper, 2 of tin, and 1 
of yellow brass ; though for high speed, such as elec- 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 89 

trie-light engines, they are frequently made of phos- 
phored bronze; while in the case of slow-running 
engines, the shell of the box is generally made of 
ordinary brass, and lined with Babbitt metal. 

HOW STEAM-ENGINES ARE MADE. 

The cylinders, bed-plates op housings, cranks, 

and, in fact, almost all parts of large steam-engines, 
are cast in loam, while those of small engines are 
either cast in dry or green sand. The cast-iron of 
which they are made must be tough, hard, and pos- 
sess great tensile strength. After they are poured 
they must be allowed to remain in the mould until 
their temperature is about equal to that of the sur- 
rounding atmosphere. They are then lifted out with 
cranes, the cores removed, the castings cleaned and 
inspected, and, if proved to be perfectly sound, they 
are roughly chipped in the foundry, previous to their 
removal to the machine-shop. 

If it is a large cylinder, it is placed on a machine 
and bored out with a boring bar, which carries three 
tools, and consequently takes three cuts — the roughs 
ing, the straightening, and the smoothing — after 
which the bore, for a short distance at each end, is 
enlarged ; this is termed the counter-bore. The bar 
is then removed and the ends of the cylinder faced 
up, after which the holes for the cylinder-head stub- 
bolts are drilled and tapped. 



90 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

The cylinder is then removed from the machine, 
the steam-ports squared up on their edges, the valve 
or valve-seats planed, filed, and scraped, and the 
holes for the steam-chest stud-bolts drilled and 
tapped. The bed-plate is planed on its upper face, 
and, if of the box pattern, the flanges which attach 
the cylinder to it are planed and drilled, the guides 
are then planed, drilled, and adjusted to their po- 
sition. The pillow-block, if cast separate from the 
bed-plate, is then placed in position, and put in line 
with the guides and cylinder, after which they are 
all tied down and dowal pinned. The stud-bolts 
of the steam-chest and the cylinder-heads are then 
screwed in the piston, placed in the cylinder, and 
connected with the cross-head, either by a T- screw 
and jam-nut, as the case may be. The stub-end 
boxes may then be placed on the cross-head wrist 
and crank-pin and attached to the connecting-rod by 
the key gibs and straps. The valve or valves, which 
had previously been planed, filed, and scraped, are 
next placed in the steam-chest and the valve and 
eccentric rods adjusted. 

It was formerly the custom to heat the bosses and 
hubs of cranks before inserting the shaft or crank- 
pin, so that the enlargement of the holes, induced 
by expansion, might admit of the operation being 
performed more easily and expeditiously ; but this 
method has been abandoned, and crank-shafts and 
pins are all inserted cold at the present time. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 91 

The modus operandi is that the shaft or pin is 
turned about one-sixty-fourth of an inch larger than 
the hole, except for a short distance on the extreme 
point where it enters ; it is then placed in a hydro- 
static machine, then the parts to be connected are 
subjected to a pressure of from three to five hundred 
tons per square inch, and forced home to the right 
position. 

Fitting cranks to their shafts and crank-pins to 
cranks requires the best mechanical skill, perfect 
accuracy and precision, as the slightest deviation of 
the crank from a perfect right-angle with the shaft, 
or of the crank-pin with the crank, would affect the 
working. 

MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFACTURE 
OF STEAM-ENGINES. 

Cast-iron is the material from which the bed- 
plates and cylinders of all classes of steam-engines, 
whether large or small, are made. The cross-heads, 
cranks, and guides are almost invariably made of 
the same material, as is also the piston-heads and 
rings. There are instances where piston-heads are 
made of wrought-iron, and piston-rings of brass and 
wrought-iron, but they are intended to meet certain 
requirements. Experience has shown that cast-iron 
is the most desirable material for piston-rings of all 
classes of steam-engines, stationary, locomotive, or 
marine. 



92 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Piston -pods, crank-pins, and crank-shafts are gen- 
erally made of wrought-iron, although in many 
instances they are made of steel, as they may be 
of less diameter, in consequence of possessing more 
rigidity and greater tensile strength and durability 
than wrought-iron ; besides, the cost of machine 
steel is only slightly in advance of wrought-iron. 
Yalve and eccentric rods are generally made of 
wrought-iron, but in the best class of stationary, 
locomotive, and marine engines they are made of 
steel. 

The stub-end op connecting-pod boxes are gen- 
erally made of brass or gun-metal, and in some 
cases of bronze, while in others their inner surface 
is composed of a shell, which is lined with ''Babbitt " 
metal, which, if good, is very durable and eco- 
nomical, as it requires less lubrication than either 
brass, bronze, or gun-metal; but it has this disad- 
vantage, that, if not properly lubricated, or if neg- 
lected and allowed to become overheated, it will 
melt and run out. The result of this is, the box is 
ruined — in fact, boxes made of brass, bronze, gun-, 
metal, or any other material, if keyed up too tight 
or allowed to become dry, will spoil. 

HOW TO LOCATE AN ENGINE. 

The fipst point to be considered in the location of 
an engine, is the position which the engine is in- 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 93 

tended to occupy, whether inside or outside of the 
building. The next thing is to get the line of the 
shaft from which the driving-belt will communicate 
the power from the engine, and then locate the en- 
gine so that the driving pulley will be in line with 
the centre of the driven pulley on the countershaft. 
It will be necessary to take the line of the building at 
four or five different places in its length, and then 
strike a line across them all, which will give the centre 
line of the building, or the position which the main 
shaft should occupy when hung. 




THE STEARN'S ENGINE. 

In some instances the power is communicated to 
a short shaft, called the counter-shaft, and from that 
to the main shaft by means of another belt. In 
other cases the engine is located outside of the main 
building, but the calculations for the proper location 
of it are just the same. All engines, particularly 



94 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

those which are intended to supply power for large 
factories, should be located near the middle of the 
building, in order that the power may be communi- 
cated to the main line of shafting near its centre, in 
order to diminish the strain and friction, as when 
the power is communicated to a long line of shafting 
at the extreme end it induces torsioo, friction, and 
loss of power. 

Small engines are sometimes located at right 
angles with the shaft to which they are intended to 
communicate power. In such cases, the driving belt 
must be guided by mule-pulleys, or idlers ; but this 
arrangement only answers for engines of small 
power and belts of moderate width. In all cases, 
when the power to be communicated is large, it 
must be as direct as possible. 

CARE OP THE STEAM-ENGINE. 

Always start an engine slowly, for the purpose of 
expelling the air and water condensation from the 
cylinder, when the latter is cold; then bring the 
engine gradually up to its regular speed. 

Be sure the drip-cocks, in the front and back 
heads of the cylinder, are always open when the en- 
gine is standing still, and never close them until the 
water is all expelled. 

Never admit the lubricating substance, oil or tal- 
low, to the cylinder, until it is thoroughly warmed 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 95 

up, as before that time the water of condensatioD 
furnishes sufficient lubrication. 

Never use more oil or tallow in the cylinder than 
is absolutely necessary, as it is not only a waste, but 
is objectionable, as it unites with the feed-water iD 
open heaters, and causes foaming and priming, while, 
in closed heaters, it forms a conglomerate with the 
minerals in the feed-water, and is liable to do mis- 
chief. 

Always lubricate or oil the different parts of the 
steam-engine before starting, by depositing a few 
drops of oil in the right places. Any quantity over 
that actually required is unnecessary, superfluous, 
and a waste. 

Always try to run your engine on the minimum 
quantity of coal, oil, tallow, packing, waste, rags, or 
wipings, as the few drops of oil deposited in the 
right place at the right time will suffice. The same 
judgment must be exercised in regard to the mate- 
rials used in cleaning the engine. 

Always keep the piston and valve-rod packing in 
a bag or clean drawer, in order to prevent dirt, sand, 
or whitewash from becoming attached to it, as these 
substances have a tendency to flute and cut the rods. 

HOW TO CLEAN A STEAM-ENGINE. 

It is a noticeable fact that, when an inexperienced, 
ignorant, or careless engineer undertakes to clean an 



96 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

engine, he first uses clean waste rags, or other new 
materials, to wipe up the dirty oil from the stub ends, 




THE SOMBERT GAS-ENGINE. 

crank-pin, or cross-head guides, and then applies the 
same to the cylinder-head, connecting- and valve- 
rods, cross-heads, and the bright or finished work. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 97 

On the other hand, it may be noticed that the neat, 
careful, and ambitious engineer first wipes up the 
worst parts of the engine with rags or waste that 
had been used several times before, then he takes the 
better class of wiper, and removes all the residue, 
oil, or grease, after which he wipes his hands, and 
applies clean waste or rags, as the case may be. A 
philosopher was asked how he could tell a girl who 
would make a good housewife. He suggested the 
idea of placing a broom on the floor, and if she 
stepped over it, and went her way, it was a doubtful 
case ; but if she picked it up, and placed it on the 
end with the broom upward, it would be safe to take 
stock. 

Whenever an engineer is discovered rubbing up 
the finished work of his engine with the same piece 
of waste with which he mopped up the superfluous 
oil from the cross-head guides, it is evident that he 
is ignorant of his duties. Cleaning engines, or any 
other class of machinery, is similar to other mechan- 
ical operations. Some men will comprehend the right 
way at the start, while others will never learn. 

Every engineer should provide himself with a few 
sheets of o o crocus cloth, and a moderate quantity 
of flour of emery, pulverized chalk or whiting, and 
rotten-stone. These materials will be sufficient, but 
he must remember that, when using emery or crocus 
cloth, he must always move his hand in the same 
direction, as, if he alters the motion, the material, 
9 G 



98 * THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

however fine it may be, will scratch or discolor the 
work. 

To clean brass or copper, one ounce of oxalic acid, 
dissolved in one -half pint of water, and well shaken, 
will remove the tarnish off brass or copper very 
rapidly. All that is necessary is to saturate a piece 
of waste with it, pass it over the surface, then wipe 
it off, apply an oily rag, and, after wiping the oil off, 
go over the surface with chalk or rotten-stone. 

HOW TO SET UP AN ENGINE. 

To set up an engine, the location must be deter- 
mined according to instructions given in the previous 
subject, after which the excavation may be made, 
which should be at least 2 feet wider and longer than 
the brickwork, which is to form the base on which 
the bed-plate is intended to rest. The depth of the 
excavation must depend in all cases on the size and 
weight of the engine, and the character of the soil 
on which the foundation rests. 

The next requisite is a template, which should be 
a fac simile of the under side of the bed-plate. This 
template may be made of one-inch pine board, and 
must contain holes to correspond with those on the 
bed-plate. It may be set up to the proper height on 
four props, and in line with the shaft or pulley on 
which the belt from the driving-wheel is intended to 
travel, after which the anchor-bolts, which are in- 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. i?9 

tended to tie the bed-plate to the foundation, may- 
be hung with an anchor on the lower end, and nuts 
turned about two-thirds their depth. 

The anchor- bolts should extend from the top of 
the template to within about six inches of the bottom 
of excavation. The bricklayers may then commence 
to lay the foundation, and, when they arrive at the 
proper height, the template may be removed and the 
top of the brickwork covered with a heavy coat of 
mortar or cement, before the bed-plate is placed on it, 
after which it may be lined and tied down with the 
anchor-bolts. A line may be then drawn through 
the centre of the cylinder, and intersected with an- 
other through the centre of the pillow-block bearing, 
by which the position of the off pillow-block may 
be determined. 

When the bed -plate is level, the guides parallel, 
and the crank-pin plumb at half-stroke, and in line on 
the inboard and outboard centres, all the details may 
be finished up, and if the engine was intelligently 
and carefully set up, there is no reason why it should 
not work well. 

HOW TO SET OUT THE PISTON-PACKING IN THE 
CYLINDER. 

Great care must be exercised in adjusting the 
packing in steam-cylinders. This operation is gen- 
erally performed when both the cylinder and pack- 

LofC. 



100 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

ing are cold, and, if they are screwed or wedged out 
very tight while in this condition, the expansion 
will induce more rigidity when exposed to the action 
of the steam. As a result, the lubricating sub- 
stance cannot enter between the surfaces in contact, 
which will induce friction, heating, and cutting. 

It must be understood, there must be a film of 
water, resulting from the condensation of steam, 
between the surface of the piston-ring and the walls 
of the cylinder. This condition is absolutely neces- 
sary in the case of slide-valves as well as steam-pis- 
ton packings. There are circumstances and con- 
ditions under which, however great the quantity of 
lubrication applied, it will not lubricate, because the 
weight is such, or the parts in contact are so rigid, 
that the lubricating substance cannot enter. 

Fop the foregoing reasons the condition of the 
cylinder, the expansion of the metals, if there is 
more than one metal, the speed at which the engine 
is intended to run, the load, pressure, etc., must be 
considered. If the piston-rings are slack, leakage 
will be induced and also loss of power ; if they are 
too tight, it will cause heating, friction, and tearing 
of the surface, which will necessitate reboring of the 
cylinder, turning, and facing of the rings. 

Nearly every engineer, however limited his ex- 
perience may be, thinks that he understands how to 
set a slide-valve, or adjust piston-packing, while 
many, who undertake to perform such operations, cto> 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



101 



not understand the requirements of such adjust- 
ments, and the conditions and changes to which the 
parts are exposed when in use under steam. 




Kartzenstein's Piston- 
rod Packing. 



PISTON- AND VALVE-ROD PACKING. 

Formerly raw hemp, or what was termed spun 
yarn, was the only packing used 
for pistons and valve-rods. It 
had the advantage of simplicity, 
and was easy to apply, but it 
had the disadvantage of char- 
ring when screwed up tight; 
besides, the shore or stock 
which it contained had a ten- 
dency to flute the rods. It was 
customary to soak it in melted 
tallow, though this did not add to its durability. 

There is a great variety of piston-rod and valve- 
rod packing in the market at the present day, which 
is designated by different names, all of which pos- 
sess certain merits. They have the advantage of 
being easily inserted in the boxes, and are made of 
sizes to meet every dimension of stuffing-box and 
wad. A very desirable feature in any packing is, 
that it should spring and relieve the strain on the 
rod, particularly when the engine is out of line. 
Any packing should be removed from the boxes 
when it loses its elasticity. 



102 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Preparatory to packing an engine, all the old 
packing should be removed, the boxes thoroughly 
cleaned out, the rings should be cut in suitable 
lengths — a fraction less than the diameter of the 
rod or box, so that when they are inserted they will 
not butt, for if they are too long, they will not hug 
the rod, which will render it impossible to make the 
packing tight. The packing in piston- and valve- 
rod boxes will sometimes leak badly, after it is put 
in. Instead of screwing it up, so that the friction 
will heat the rods and ruin the packing, it is better 
to take out one or two rings and reverse them, 
which, in the majority of cases, will stop the leak. 

Piston- and valve-rod packing should never be 
screwed up more than sufficient to prevent it from 
leaking, as the softer the packing is the longer it 
will last, and the better the engine will run. When 
the packing is first inserted in the boxes, it should 
be screwed up tight, and then the nut slacked off suf- 
ficiently to allow the packing to swell where exposed 
to the action of the steam. The nuts may then be 
screwed up gradually, if the packing leaks. 

To find the right diameter of packing for any 
stuffing-box, take the diameter of the rod and the 
diameter of the box, then the size of packing re- 
quired will be the difference between the two. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



103 




104 THE YOUNG ENGINEEK'S OWN BOOK. 

LET THE STEAM-ENGINE ALONE. 

Whenever you have charge of an engine that 
runs smooth, or as well as can be expected, all 
circumstances considered, let it alone. Do not take K 

7 mi. 

any stock in the man that sets her valves the first 
thing after he takes charge, and finds that all the 
engines that ever he ran were out of order when 
he took charge of them, and when he left them 
they were in splendid condition. 

You must remember that, while it may be easy 
to take an engine apart, it is not always as easy to I 
put it together again, and even »if it were, it is), 
doubtful whether it would be improved by so doing. I 
If an engine possesses inherent defects, no amount I 
of taking down or setting up will remedy it. If it ? 
is out of line, nothing but a good rehauling will 
remedy the evil. :> 

Many splendid engines have been ruined by tink- fe 
ering, at the hands of parties who had no practical 1 
knowledge of what they undertook. They unloosen fe» 
jam-nuts, and disconnect the valve gear, without J 
paying any attention to the marks which were | 
placed there by the manufacturer or constructing S 
engineer as a guide to future adjustment ; conse- I 
quently, when they come to put the parts together, I 
they are groping in the dark. 

The individual who stated that after he set out 
the packing in the cylinder, she went to work and 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 105 

cut herself, was not a person that would be likely 
to accomplish a very accurate adjustment. 

Three very important points must be considered, 
before you commence to tinker an engine ; first, does 
it require it ; second, why does it ? third, are you 
sure you can improve it ? if not, let it alone. 

HOW TO TREAT THE ENGINE. 

No person of a humane or generous disposition 
would abuse, maltreat, or neglect a beast, bird, or 
mimal, or even feel comfortable if he had reason 
jO believe that they were suffering from overwork, 
maps, galls, or causes for which they were not to 
)lame or could not explain. Then why should the 
mgine be abused, neglected, overworked, and galled? 

Horses that are well fed, kept clean, and not 
overstrained, generally live beyond the age of the 
iverage horse. This also applies to a steam-engine, 
.f it is well designed, proportioned to its work, kept 
lean, lubricated, and not overworked, it will render 
ong, faithful, and efficient service, without any in- 
rease in the cost of maintenance, which, of course, 
aeans repairs, and extra expenses for oil, packing, 
•tc. 

If, on the other hand, it is badly proportioned to 
the work that it performs, overtaxed, strained, and 
not properly cared for, its sinews will waste and its 
efficiency be impaired, the cost of maintenance will 



106 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

be increased, and the limit of its usefulness dimin- 
ished. If we start out to ride or drive a horse a 
certain number of miles, say twenty, and for the 
first five we urge him to the limit of his speed, 
without considering the load, or the condition of 
the road over which he has to travel, he will 
probably break down before reaching the end of 
the journey ; but if we drive him at a moderate 
speed for the first five or ten miles, he will proba- 
bly reach his destination in good condition. This 
is precisely the case with the steam-engine. 

MAN'S INHUMANITY TO THE MACHINE. 

It has been said that no other device in the 
whole range of human invention has monopolized 
so much devotion from the scientist and mechani- 
cian, so much investigation from the theorist, and 
so much thought and study from the practical me- 
chanic, as the steam-engine, and that it always 
exerts a fascinating influence over the minds of 
mechanical geniuses, as well as persons of ordinary 
intellect and limited education. This, probably, 
accounts for the fact that the lack of natural or 
cultivated talent, mechanical ideas, ambition, and 
appreciation of things with which they would have 
to deal, have rendered many, who might otherwise 
have adopted engineering as a calling, totally unfit 
for such an occupation as a result. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 107 

It is not at all uncommon when we enter an 
engine-room, to see a machine, that once was as 
bright as a new silver dollar, and an object of 
attraction even for those who did understand the 
principle on which it was based, on account of 
its symmetry of proportions, elegance of design, 
and easy and graceful movements, leaking at every 
pore, and covered with filth, the piston- and valve- 
rods fluted for want of proper packing, the crank- 
pin copper-colored from over-heating, the stub-end 
boxes cut, the keys battered with hammers or 
monkey-wrenches, the governor, that was once re- 
liable, and which rendered efficient service, trying 
to perform its duty by spasmodic jumps, the oil-cup, 
or lubricator, bubbling out grease, a puddle of crude 
oil in the well of the bed-plate, and the engine 
groaning under the load which it once seemed a 
pleasure to carry, while the individual with the 
blue jumper and overalls sits listlessly looking on. 

Then turn to the boiler, and you will probably see 
the head and front covered with ashes ; that beauti- 
ful adjunct, the glass water-gauge, stained with yel- 
low mud on the inside, if not broken and dispensed 
with altogether ; the steam-gauge out of order, or 
presenting strong evidence of not receiving any at- 
tention ; while that silent sentinel, the safety-valve, 
would be probably discovered to be leaking, its stem 
bent, overloaded, and its utility nullified, by render- 
ing it a non-safety instead of a safety-valve. 



108 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Then if we turn to the pump we find that, how- 
ever reliable, efficient, and durable it might have been, 
when put into use, its condition shows that its ser- 
vices have not been appreciated. 

So with the injector, that little wonder, that might 
be set up in any place, in any position, whether hori- 
zontal, vertical, or incline, and render efficient service 
without the necessity of belt, oil, or packing, still 
is frequently allowed to fall into bad repair. 

Of course, it would be only reasonable to expect 
that the party whose ignorance and contributive 
negligence ruined the splendid engine, would de- 
nounce it as a fraud, when it required repairs ; and 
assert that the governor was a humbug, when all it 
actually required was a good cleaning ; and that he 
would not give a tinker for the pump, when all it 
wanted to restore it to its original efficiency and 
capacity would be to take up the packing in the 
steam- and water-cylinders, pack the piston- and 
valve-rods, and renew or grind in the valves. 

The injector he considers a mighty poor arrange- 
ment, even though he might be forced to admit that 
it rendered valuable service ; the steam-gauge he does 
not think much about, and as for the glass water- 
gauge, he considers it a nuisance. It is more than 
probable that, on examination, the door of the fur- 
nace, of which he had charge, was either broken or 
out of swing, the bridge wall tumbled down, the 
flues full of ashes, a cartload of cinders under the 



L 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 109 




THE TAYLOR VERTICAL ENGINE. 



110 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

grate-bars, and the gauge-cocks either broken off, 
plugged up, or filled with mud. 

It is not at all likely that the individual who was 
instrumental in producing the condition of affairs 
described in the foregoing paragraphs would be likely 
to appreciate any new labor- or heat-saving arrange- 
ment. He would rather have a rope attached to the 
safety-valve passing over a wood shieve in the loft 
than either the steam or glass water-gauge, and he 
would prefer to handle half a ton of coal extra twice 
every day, than have any improvement made in the 
furnace, on the principle, probably, that what was 
considered good enough in his father's time is good 
enough at the present. 

TECHNICAL TERMS APPLIED TO DIFFERENT 
PARTS OF STEAM-ENGINES WHICH DESIGNATE 
THE MEMBERS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 

Arms. — The braces which connect the hub of the 
fly-wheel with the rim. 

Back. — The reverse side of the bed-plate in engines 
with girder frames. 

Belly. — The heavy side of an eccentric. 

Breast. — That part of the bed-plate which is back 
of the cross-heads in engines of the Corliss type. 

Cheeks. — The edges of the cross-heads in front of 
the guides. 

Ear. — A protection in the flange of the cylinder, 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. Ill 

by means of which the cylinder is braced to the pil- 
low-block, for the purpose of giving rigidity to the 
bed-plate. 

Elbows. — Arrangements used for making a right- 
angle bend on steam- and exhaust-pipes. 

Eye. — The hole in the bracket which forms a guide 
for the valve-rod in cases where a rocker is not em- 
ployed. 

Feet. — Flanges by which the engine is tied. 

Fingers. — The devices by which the exhaust- 
valves of engines using the Stevens 7 cut-off are 
worked. 

Hand. — The pointer on the dial of steam-gauges. 

Head. — The circular plates that cover the cylinder 
of a steam-engine. 

Jaws. — The part of the cross-head which rests on 
the guide ; there are upper and lower "jaws." 

Knees. — Right-angle brackets very generally em- 
ployed for supporting steam-cylinders on their foun- 
dations. 

Knuckles. — A joint formed in the valve-rod for the 
purpose of averting the influence of the rocker and 
preserving a parallel motion. 

Legs. — The supports on which the cylinder and 
front pillow-block rest in engines having girder- 
frame bed-plates. 

Lips. — The extreme ends of slide-valves, which 
overlap the ports when in the centre of the travel. 

Mouth. — An arrangement attached to the under 



112 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

side of jian-holes, which forms the seat for the lips 
of the man-hole plate. 

Neck. — The intervening piece between the front 
head of the cylinder and the flange of the stuffing- 
box. 

Nose. — The extreme end of the piston-rod which 
protrudes through the back end of the cross-head. 

Ribs. — Projections cast on the back sides of the 
girder-frames of steam-engines, for the purpose of 
preventing springing. 

Shoulder. — The part of the piston-rod which butts 
against the cross-head. 

Skin. — A brass or copper covering placed over the 
piston-rod of steam-engines, also of air-pumps, using 
the jet condenser to prevent corrosion induced by 
the salt water. 

Teeth. — A general term which applies to the cog 
gearing used on the governors and valve gears of 
steam-engines. 

Toes. — The stubs which operate the steam-valves 
of engines using the Stevens' and Winters' front 
and cut-off. 

Tongue. : — A mechanical arrangement employed in 
some instances for giving motion to the valves of 
automatic cut-off engines. 

Wrist. — That part of the cross-head to which the 
connecting-rod and boxes are attached. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 113 

TECHNICAL TERMS APPLIED TO DIFFERENT 
PARTS OF STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS 
WHICH DESIGNATE GARMENTS. 

Cap. — The plate which covers the ends of the 
steam- and exhaust-chest of engines of the Corliss 
type. 

Bonnet. — The term applied to the cover of the 
steam-chest. 

Hood. — The projection which overhangs the stuff- 
ing-box on the front end of Tangye bed-plates. 

Collar. — An adjustable or solid ring frequently 
employed on the shafts which give motion to the 
valves. 

Sleeve. — The hollow tube in which the governor 
shaft revolves. 

Jacket. — The term applied to the covering on 
steam cylinders. 

Breeches. — An arrangement employed in connec- 
tion with flue boilers, for the purpose of conveying 
the smoke to the chimney. 

Petticoat- pipe. — A conduit for the exhaust steam 
from nozzles to chimney in locomotives. 

Shoes. — The gibs which support the cross-head in 
engines of the Corliss type. 

Pocket. — A recess on the steam-valves to collect 
the water of condensation. 

Waist. — The part of a boiler between the fire-bos 
and smoke-chamber. 

10* H 



114 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Hat. — A cast-iron pot attached to the bottom of 
locomotive boilers, for the purpose of collecting and 
retaining the sludge which results from the feed- 
water. 

Mantle. — A term applied' to the steam-jacket by 
European engineers, particularly Germans, but it 
has never been adopted in this country. 

KNOCKING IN STEAM-ENGINES. 

Some engines knock because they are out of line, 
or the reciprocating or revolving parts are loose from 
wear or other causes. Other engines knock because 
they take the steam too soon, or let it go too late, 
or because the compression is too great or not suffi- 
cient. Engines knock because the boxes on the 
cross-head, wrist, and crank-pin are worn out too 



Engines knock sidewise because they are out of 
* line ; others knock up and down, because the gibs on ' 
the cross-heads are too loose ; engines knock because 
the packing around the piston-rod is too tight ; but 
the knock which is induced by over-compression, or 
a contraction of the exhaust, can easily be distin- 
guished from the knocks induced by looseness or 
wear, as, instead of a loud and clear sound, there is 
a dull, heavy thud. 

Engines knobk because the piston-rod packing is 
screwed up too tight, or the gland of the stuffing- 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 115 

box is not straight with the piston. Engines often 
knock when they are started up, and after they get 
under way the knock ceases, while other engines 
knock when the steam is shut off preparatory to stop- 
ping. The cause in both of the foregoing cases is 
that there is not sufficient steam in the cylinder to 
balance the reciprocating parts. 

When the slide-valve connections, or piston-rings, 
are badly worn or loose, the clatter is when the en- 
gine is started up or shut down, while, when it is 
fairly under way, they cease because the pressure of 
the steam takes up the lost motion. Never let the 
engine in your charge knock if you can help it, as it 
grates harshly on the ear of the engineer and prac- 
tical mechanic ; besides, those who do not pretend 
to know anything about an engine, conclude there 
must be something out of order when they hear it 
knocking, and when an engine does knock, there is 
unquestionably something wrong. 

WHAT SHOULD THE YOUNG ENGINEER BE? 

He should be a young man of intelligence, of good 

natural mechanical ideas, be temperate, industrious, 
ambitious to excel in the calling that he has adopted, 
and be possessed of a moderate share of education. 
Of course, it will be advanced that men who have 
no education at all have proved themselves to be 
among the most reliable engineers in the country, 



J 16 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

and filled first-class situations. This may be true ; 
but if all the traits in their character were known, 
it would probably be discovered that they were nat- 
urally men of intellect, who, if they had possessed 
the advantage of a good education, would probably 
have excelled in their line of business. Now, if the 
fact was established that many uneducated men 
make good engineers, it would be a dangerous pre- 
cedent to follow, because it is well known that an 
engineer can never rise above a certain level in his 
profession, unless he has a fair share of education. 

An engineer ought to keep his ideas abreast of the 
times, and also keep himself posted in the progress of 
the age, the great improvements that are continually 
being made in steam machinery, any new inventions 
that are constantly being introduced, and bask in the 
light that science is shedding on the theories of the 
steam-engine. Now, how can he do this if he cannot 
consult the scientific journals ? He is in the position 
of a man who has his tongue in another man's 
cheek, or his faith pinned to another man's sleeve — 
he is helplessly dependent on what he is told. Even 
if an engineer has a moderate share of education, 
and yet never expended one dollar as subscription 
to a journal that was devoted to the interests of his 
profession, nor ever purchased a work that would 
enlighten him on subjects relating to his occupation, 
what is the opinion, ideas, or experience of such a 
man worth, as they were all conceived, moulded, 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 117 

and confined to the limits of an obscure engine-room? 
He need not necessarily be a machinist, as experience 
has shown that machinists do not make the best en' 
gineers ; the facts are the reverse. It has been dis- 
covered that machinists, when following the occupa- 
tion of engineers, are less careful, neat, and reliable 
than engineers who are not machinists ; besides, 
there is no reason why a man should learn two 
trades for the purpose of following one. 

Every engineer should be able to use the small 
tools that come into play in every-day practice, viz., 
the hammer, cold-chisel, dividers, centre-punch, drill, 
trimmers, shears, tap and die, and be able to take the 
diameter of a bolt, the number of threads according 
to the diameter, the size of drill required for any tap, 
and the size required for an old or new hole. 

WHAT SHOULD THE YOUNG ENGINEER KNOW? 

He should know the rudiments of the business in 
which he is about to engage, and no man should be 
allowed to engage in the profession or take charge 
of steam machinery until he has undergone an ex- 
amination for the purpose of establishing that fact. 
He should be able to explain the difference between 
condensing, non-condensing, simple, compound, auto- 
matic cut-off, and throttling engines. 

The amateur engineer should be able to read the 
indicator diagram, and designate the admission and 



118 THE YOUNG, ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Steam lines, the expansion-curve, the points of cut-off 
and release, the compression, etc., and he should be 
able to show by the diagram whether the engine 
was in good order or not, whether the admission 
took place at the right time, whether the cut-off was 
sharp, whether the release occurred too soon or too 
late, or whether the compression was excessive or * 
not sufficient to balance the momentum of the 
reciprocating and revolving parts of the engine. 

Of course, many engineers, young and old, will 
exclaim, "I am no theorist," "I have no education," 
" I am a practical man ;" but no man is practical, 
unless he understands the difference between good 
and bad practice. Besides, it does not require any 
more education to tell the good and bad points in 
an indicator diagram than it does to tell whether a 
new suit of clothes is a good fit or not, or whether 
one of the traces of a set of harness is too long or 
too short. 

Any engineer, if he did not know his A B C ? s, 
could learn to read the diagram by taking two or 
three lessons from some competent person ; but it is 
not at all likely that the party who never subscribed 
for any work or journal that treated on or elucidated 
that subject would be apt to pay money for verbal 
instructions, however valuable they might be to 
him. 

He should know how to locate, set up, reverse, 
put into line, and estimate the horse-power of a 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 119 

steam-engine ; locate and set a steam-boiler, and 
estimate its heating surface. Manufacturers who 
sell steam-engines and boilers, particularly those of 
moderate size, are expected to set them up and put 
them under steam, but that is no reason why an 
engineer should not know how such work ought to 
be done. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER SHOULD PRACTISE 
ECONOMY. 

He should never waste any of the supplies with 
which he is intrusted for the use of the steam-engine 
or boilers. He should understand that the lump of 
coal dropped from the wheelbarrow between the 
coal-pit and the boiler-room is just as valuable as any 
in the lot, and that the black nuggets which appear 
like mushrooms in the ash-pile after a night's rain 
are just as valuable as those which are shovelled into 
the furnace. 

The saving of one pound of anthracite coal in a 
day will be so insignificant that it will not be worth 
noticing. Nevertheless, if it is good coal, it will 
probably contain from 85 to 90 per cent, of carbon ; 
and if all the heat developed by the consumption of 
one pound of pure carbon could be demonstrated for 
a given quantity of water, it will raise the tempera- 
ture of 14,500 pounds of water one degree, or T.25 
tons from 32 to 33 degrees Fah. 



120 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

He should be careful about the waste rags, or 
whatever fibrous material he may use for wiping. 
He must not throw it away because it is partially 
saturated with oil, as it is good for the first wiping 
before he uses the clean material ; as it is necessary 
to determine whether the engineer understands how 
to take care of an engine or not, just observe him 
cleaning one. Ignorant engineers will always wipe 
up from the guides, cross-heads, or crank-pin, and then 
wipe the connecting-rod, the cylinder-head, the gov- 
ernor-balls with the same rag or piece of waste ; 
while a neat and particular engineer will first wipe 
up the superfluous oil from the different parts, then 
wipe their hands, and take clean material for rubbing 
up the bright work. 

There is no doubt but that all classes of engineers, 
with very few exceptions, use more oil for lubrica- 
tion than is necessary, because a few drops of oil at 
the right time and in the right place are just as good 
as a gill ; as any amount of lubrication except that 
which is just sufficient to form a film between the 
rubbing or revolving surface is wasted. 

Suppose a tablespoonful of oil is poured on each 
of the guides, or into the oil hole in the pillow-block 
bearing, all of it that will render any service is just 
the quantity that will diminish the friction and pre- 
vent abrasion of the parts in contact. From this 
it is evident that three times as much oil is wasted 
in the lubricating of steam-engines and other ina 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 121 

ehinery as is necessary, which, like the waste of fuel 
and other supplies, serves to diminish the profits of 
the establishment. Every engineer should show his 
employer when he has taken out a certain quantity 
of supplies, that he had used everything with intel- 
ligence, judgment, and care. 

The young engineer should never solicit or em 
courage his employer to purchase any steam-engine 
or boiler attachment, unless he considers it very 
necessary, even though it may be handsome and 
possess the merit of novelty, because, when the 
owner of a steam-engine or boiler is urged by his 
engineer to forego the expense of placing all kinds 
of automatic arrangements on his boilers, viz., steam- 
whistles, low-water detectors, magnetic and record- 
ing gauges, he will naturally begin to think that, if 
all these safeguards are attached to his boiler, a cheap 
engineer is all that is necessary, no matter how igno- 
rant he may be. 

WHAT TOOLS SHOULD THE YOUNG ENGINEER 
HAVE? 

He should have a machinist's hammer, a monkey- 
wrench, two flat cold-chisels, a cape-chisel, calipers, 
dividers, a centre punch, a scribe, a rule, and an oiler. 
He should have a soft-hammer, which he can make 
himself with a piece of copper tube, about 2 inches 
in diameter and 3 J long, with an oval hole cut 
11 



122 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



through it in which to insert the handle, after which 
be may place it on some plane surface and pour in 




molten lead until the tube is filled to the top. This 
will make an excellent hammer for adjusting the 
parts of steam-engines. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 123 

The engineer should also provide himself with 
some plumber's solder, to interpose between the 
parts which have to be driven with a heavy hammer 
or sledge. He should also keep in his drawer pieces 
of sheet-tin, copper, and brass, to use as liners for 
adjusting certain parts of the engine which cannot 
be accomplished otherwise. He should have a suit- 
able tool for backing out the cross-head key, and a 
packing-bar for removing the old packing from the 
stuffing-box, as in cases, when it is neglected, it re- 
quires to be dug out ; and no tool should be used for 
this purpose unless it was perfectly smooth, as it has 
a tendency to abrase the rod. 

He should have a packing-hook for withdrawing 
the packing of the boxes, in case it becomes neces- 
sary to do so, while the packing is in a fit condition 
to be used again. He should have packing-sticks for 
driving the packing into the boxes ; they should be 
made of hickory, about 6 inches long, and just the 
thickness of the stem of the stuffing-boxes ; should 
be concave on one side and convex on the other, to 
fit the circles of the rod or the box. He should pro- 
vide himself with a few pieces of hard wood, either 
hickory, oak, or ash, from 2 to 3 inches square and 
about 6 inches long. They are very handy for driv- 
ing parts of the engine together. 



124 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

CONVERSATION BETWEEN THE YOUNG ENGI- 
NEER AND HIS EMPLOYER. 

" Mr. Jones, I would like a small advance in my 
wages. I don't think the amount you are paying 
me is sufficient for my services." 

" Thomas, you suit me very well, and I do not 
wish to part with you, but the fact is, the profits of 
the business are so small that I cannot afford to pay 
you any more." 

He leaves. The new engineer who takes his place 
informs Mr. Jones in a few days that he will need 
coal to-morrow. 

"Mr. Jones, we will need coal to-morrow." 

Mr. Jones looks in his book, and inquires if that 
quantity of coal is all used. 

"Yes." 

" That is very strange ; when Thomas was here, 
he took three days more out of the same amount of 
coal, when we were doing more work than we are 
doing now." 

" Mr. Jones, you will need oil and cotton-waste 
this week." 

"Why, is it possible that that barrel of oil and bag 
of waste are used up already ? When Thomas was 
here, the same quantity lasted two weeks longer, 
though we were running eleven hours a day." 

In the morning the engineer had not steam up at 
starting-time, consequently 150 men were prevented 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 125 

from commencing work at the proper time, many of 
whom were receiving very high wages. Now, if 
they were delayed 20 minutes, it would amount to 5 
working days at 10 hours per day, which would 
probably involve a loss of production of from 15 to 
20 per cent, under ordinary circumstances ; but, when 
the work was profitable, or orders had to be filled in 
a specified time, the loss would be more serious. 

The foreman asks the engineer how it happens that 
he is late in getting up steam. The engineer says the 
coal is very bad, and draught poor that morning. The 
foreman retorts by telling him that the draught and 
the coal are just the same as when Thomas was here, 
and they never had to wait a moment for the power. 

In a few days afterward the steam got down, and 
there was not sufficient speed to perform any of the 
mechanical operations in the factory ; some of the 
operatives took off their aprons and put on their 
coats, and told the foreman that they could not do 
anything, so they might just as well go home. 

The owner of the factory was so much annoyed 
by the interruption to his business, that he inquired 
if any one had seen Thomas recently, or knew where 
he was. He was cheerfully furnished with the neces- 
sary information, and he sent word to Thomas that 
he would like to see him at his earliest convenience. 
His reasonable demands were acquiesced in, and there 
was a change in the engine-room on Saturday after- 
noon. 



126 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




THOMPSON'S STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 

THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 

The steam-engine indicator is said to have been 
invented by James Watt — at least so he has asserted 
himself ; but this was only natural, as he claimed that 
every idea and improvement made in the steam-en- 
gine for years originated with him, and, if he could 
not compel the unfortunate mechanic or inventor to 
acknowledge his claim, or part with his invention, he 
tried to prevent any one else from being benefited 
by it. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 127 

Watt's indicator was a very rude instrument, and 
adapted only for slow piston speeds of not over 150 
feet per minute, and pressures not exceeding 1 pounds 
per square inch above atmosphere. It answered very 
well for those times, but as it was discovered that 
higher piston speeds and pressures were desirable in 
an economical point of view, the object of meeting 
these requirements attracted the attention of engi- 
neers and inventors. McNaught, of Glasgow, was 
the first to adapt the indicator to the new conditions, 
and to attempt to render it worthy of the name 
"indicator." 

The indicator baa been further improved by 
Richards, J. W. Thompson, and Harris Tabor, so 
that at the present time the indicator works with 
great accuracy, and its recordings are rendered with 
wonderful precision. The Thompson indicator is 
the leading and most popular instrument and the one 
most generally used. 

The functions of the indicator are to show, by 
tracing with a pencil on a piece of paper, during one 
stroke or revolution, what is termed a diagram (see 
page 132). This diagram shows the following facts : 
whether the steam-valve opened or admission took 
place at the right time or not ; whether the cut-off 
closed promptly at the objective point or not; 
whether the exhaust opened or release took place 
at the proper time or not ; and whether the cushion 
or compression is more or less than that required to 



128 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

insure the full development of power and smooth 
running. 

The indicator diagram demonstrates more facts 
than those above alluded to. It shows whether the 
valves are properly set or not ; whether the engine 
takes her steam and lets it go at the most available 
points in the stroke ; whether the steam- and ex- 
haust-ports are of the proper area to admit and re- 
lease the steam without inducing wire-drawing or 
back pressure ; whether the steam-pipe is of ample 
area to furnish the necessary volume of steam at the 
proper time ; whether the piston heats or not ; 
whether the clearance is too much or too little ; and 
whether the engine is condensing or non-condensing. 

Now, even after the diagram has placed us in pos- 
session of all the conditions mentioned in the two 
foregoing paragraphs, other considerations of great 
importance arise which require investigation. If the 
diagram makes a poor showing, because the engine 
from which it was taken was out of repair, our first 
duty is to restore it to its original condition, and 
then apply the indicator for the purpose of showing 
the effect produced by judicious alterations on thor- 
ough repair. 

lf,on the other hand, the diagram shows some very 
fine points, it will be necessary to make an analysis 
for the purpose of showing the cylinder efficiency, 
by taking the pressure in volume of the steam, both 
at admission and release, and also the average press* 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 129 

are for the whole length of the stroke. This will 
show the work performed or the power developed by 
a given volume of steam. 

Then the consumption of water, and the amount 
of fuel required to convert that water into steam, can 
be easily ascertained by those who possess the ability 
to do so. Many diagrams display excellent features, 
and yet, upon being subjected to a close analysis, it 
will be seen that the engine from which they were 
taken was not developing much power ; while others, 
that to all appearance were less perfect, would show 
better economy and cylinder efficiency. 

HOW TO ATTACH THE INDICATOR. 

Drill into the cylinder in the clearance spaces at 
each end, if the holes are not already there. The 
use of the indicator is becoming so general, that it 
is customary for manufacturers of steam-engines to 
drill and tap the holes and plug them up, so that, 
when it ever becomes necessary to apply the indi- 
cator, the plugs may be withdrawn. The openings 
should be for one-half inch gas-pipe, and the elbows 
should be three-fourths bushed to one-half inch. It 
is important that the connection should be as short, 
straight, and smooth as possible. 

The ends of the pipes should be squared up, and 
all burs removed from the inside, after which they 
should be blown out, for the purpose of removing 



130 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

any particles that might have resulted from the oper- 
ation of inserting them. Then, before turning on the 
steam, for the purpose of using the indicator, the pipe 
should be wrapped with strips of woollen cloth, for 
the purpose of preventing condensation. 

Before commencing operations, take the indicator 
apart, clean it with a soft clean cloth, and lubricate 
it with good oil ; test every part of it, for the pur- 
pose of ascertaining if it works smoothly ; then put 
it together without the spring, lift the pencil-lever 
and let it fall, and if it appears to work perfectly 
free, put in the spring, and make the connections ; 
give it steam, but do not undertake to trace a card 
until dry steam blows through the relief, as the 
presence of water will distort the card. 

When commencing to take the card, leave the 
valve between the lubricator and steam-cylinder 
open, so that the valves may receive sufficient oil to 
induce smooth movements. Otherwise the valve or 
valves will jerk, and spoil the diagram. If too much 
oil is admitted, it will become manifest by the indi- 
cator. It is necessary to keep the engine-room warm 
while taking the diagrams ; besides, whatever de- 
vice may be used for reducing the motion between 
the engine and the indicator, pulleys must be avoided 
and also angular vibrations of drum line. By ob- 
serving the foregoing suggestions, cards may be se- 
cured which will represent the condition of the 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 131 

THE PANTOGRAPH, OR LAZY TONGS. 

The pantograph is almost indispensable in connec- 
tion with the indica- 
tor. The most prac- 
tical and convenient 
pi ace of attaching it 
is to the cross-head, 
so that it may be 
clear at all parts of 
the stroke and in per- 
fect line with the 
post, and at such dis- 

* The Pantograph, or Lazy Tongs. 

tance that it will not 

shut too close, and at such a height that the panto- 
graph-button will be in line with the indicated 
leaders. It is also necessary to ascertain if it works 
smoothly, or if it or any other part of the connec- 
tions tremble. 

THE PLANIMETER. 

The planimeter derives its name from the expe- 
dition and accuracy with which it shows the area 
of plane surfaces with irregular sides, thus rendering 
such calculations more easy and less tedious than 
can be attained by any other known process. 

The theory upon which the planimeter is based, is 
that every plane surface, without regard to figure, 
is composed of an infinite number of small sectors of 



132 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




circles, or of segments of such sectors, the aggrega- 
tion of the areas of which is the area of the surface, 
the pole or centre from which 
the areas of the sectors or the 
differences of such areas are 
computed being immovable 
during the operation of meas- 
urement. 

In fact, the planimeter fur- 
nishes the only exact means 
of measuring indicated dia- 
grams under circumstances 
which require both expedition 
and precision; besides, the 
operation of using it is quite 
simple, all that is necessary being to fasten the fig- 
ure to be measured to a plain board, with two tacks 
or pins ; then insert the point shown in the long 
arm, at F, in the board ; next move the revolving 
wheel around, until the cipher on it corresponds 
with the zero on the stationary wheel, after which 
the point B, which carries the pencil, may be moved 
down the extreme outer edges of the figure, when 
it will be seen that the figures on the revolving 
wheel represent square inches, and the distance 
which the cipher on the revolving wheel has passed 
or lagged behind the corresponding figure on the 
stationary wheel, will represent fractions of inches. 



THE PLANIMETER. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



133 




THE OCEAN STEAMER. 



THE VACUUM —ITS EFFECT ON THE WORKING 
OF THE STEAM-ENGINE, AND AS A CONDITION 
OF ECONOMY. 

The term vacuum signifies space unoccupied by 
matter, and theoretically has been attained in a ves- 
sel when the outside or atmospheric pressure equals 
14. t pounds per square inch, corresponding in weight 
to a column of mercury 29.4 inches high which it 
will support. Practically the preponderance of press- 
ure attainable by mechanical means, on the outside of 
a condenser, rarely can be made to exceed 13 pounds 
to the square inch. 

In condensing engines, the exhaust- or eduction- 
pipe is connected with a vessel termed a condenser, 
into which the exhaust steam is discharged, and con- 
densed into water by the reduction of its tempera- 
12 



134 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

ture through the application of cold water, which 
takes up the heat in the steam, and converts it from 
a vapor (as steam) into a liquid (as water), and 
creates what is termed a vacuum, which extends to 
the exhaust side of the piston, and assists in pro- 
pelling it forward. 

If the vacuum is what is termed a ten-pound 
vacuum, it is equal to the removal of 10 pounds per 
square inch of atmospheric pressure in front of it, 
which is equivalent to adding 10 pounds per square 
inch behind it. This may be explained as follows : 

Suppose an engineer wheels a load of coal on the 
floor of his engine-room, and the wheel of the bar- 
row comes in contact with a brick or piece of plank 
of the same thickness, it will require some effort to 
force the barrow over it ; but if, on the other hand, 
the barrow comes against a lath, the wheel will pass 
over it without much effort on the part of the person 
propelling it. Now, the brick or the plank may be 
said to represent the atmospheric pressure against 
the piston of a non-condensing engine, whilst the 
lath shows the gain induced by the condenser, be- 
cause it makes no difference whether the pressure is 
exerted behind the piston of a steam-engine or re- 
moved from in front of it, the same result will 
be attained, as the power of the engine will be in- 
creased in either case. 

Condensers are divisible into two classes, viz., 
surface and jet. The surface condenser consists of 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 135 

a cast-iron shell, containing double heads and tubes 
similar to those on a tubular or locomotive boiler, 
only of smaller diameter, say seven-eighths of an 
inch. Brass is the material generally employed 
for the tubes, and is preferred, owing to the fact 
that it is not subject to corrosion. 

In the surface condenser the water is lifted out 
of the sea, river, or lake by the circulating pump, 
forced through the tubes, and then thrown over- 
board. This water is termed the injection water, 
while the water resulting from the condensation 
of the steam is termed the water of condensation. 
It has been termed the condensed water, but this 
is erroneous, as there is no such thing as condensed 
water. 

The water resulting from the condensation of 
steam in a surface condenser descends by its own 
gravity to the bottom, and is drawn off by the 
air-pump from the channel-way to the foot-valve, 
and delivered into the hot well, from which it is 
taken by the feed-pump and forced into the boiler. 

The jet condenser consists of an iron pot, similar 
to the shell of an ordinary feed-water heater, into 
which the water rises by a pipe in the ship's side. 
In this arrangement the injection water and the 
waters of condensation mingle ; consequently, when 
sea water or salt water is used as injection water 
the water of condensation is not fit for boiler pur- 
poses, being impregnated with salt. The surface 



136 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



condenser is better adapted for ocean steamers and 
seagoing vessels, while the jet condenser is better 
for lake, river, and stationary purposes, on account 
of its moderate first cost, its simplicity, its light- 
ness, and the fact that it is capable of producing 
a good vacuum. 

In the case of the jet condenser, care must be 
taken to open the injection water supply-pipe at 
the right time to produce the vacuum ; it must 
also be closed when the engine is stopped, otherwise 
the condenser and cylinder will be filled. This 
is not the case with the surface condenser, as the 
supply of injection water is only furnished when 
the engine is working. Of course there are inde- 
pendent circulating pumps, which work when the 
engine is standing still. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE VACUUM IN INCHES OF MERCURY AND POUNDS 
PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH TAKEN FROM ABOVE ATMOS- 
PHERE. 



Inches of 
mercury. 


Pressure in 
pounds per 
square inch. 


Inches of 
mercury. 


Pressure in 
pounds per 
square inch. 


2.037 
4.074 
6.111 
8.148 
10.189 
12.226 
14.263 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 


16.300 
18.337 
20.374 
22.411 

24.448 

26.485 
28.522 


8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



137 



As shown in the foregoing table, 2.037 of mercury 
te equal to 1 pound steam pressure per square inch, 
and J.4.263 is equal to 7 pounds per square inch, 
while 28.522 is equal to 14 pounds vacuum per 
gauge, which is T ^- less than the pressure of the 
atmosphere at sea level ; but it must be understood 
that a 12-pound vacuum is the best which can be 
maintained in good practice in the best class sta- 
tionary, condensing, or marine, engine. 




THE WESTINGHOUSE ENGINE. 



12* 



138 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

VOCABULARY OF NATURAL AND MECHANICAL 
PROCESS. 

What is acceleration ? — An increase in the velocity 
of a moving body. 

What is affinity ? — Affinity means the attrac- 
tion by which the particles of different substances 
unite. 

What is the meaning of the term angle ? — If two 
lines are drawn on a plain surface, and they meet, or 
would do so if continued, their opening forms an 
angle. 

What is an axle? — It is a girder or revolving 
shaft supported on wheels ; whether the wheels turn 
on the axle or are made fast to it, the principle re- 
mains the same. 

What is capillary attraction ? — It is the property 
inherent in porous substances, such as sponge, lamp- 
wick, etc., which causes fluid to rise above its nat- 
ural level. This may be seen in the case of a lamp, 
and the oil-cups on the cross-heads and crank-pin of 
steam-engines. 

What is dynamics ? — It means that branch which 
treats of forces in motion producing power and 
work. 

What is the meaning of the term energy? — It 
means work, vigor, activity, etc. 

What is force? — It is the power that produces a 
change Vn position of material bodies and may be 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 139 

defined as motion caused by weight, pressure, per- 
cussion, gravity, etc. 

What is friction ? — The resistance occasioned to 
the motion of bodies when pressed on each other's 
surfaces. 

What is the attraction of gravity ? — It is the ten- 
dency which all bodies in nature have to approach 
each other. 

What is specific gravity ? — Specific gravity of any 
substance is the ratio of its weight to an equal vol- 
ume of water. 

What is the meaning of the term horse-power ?— 
The power of a horse to draw a load, but, when ap- 
plied to the steam-engine, it means 33,000 pounds 
raised one foot high in one minute, which are termed 
foot-pounds. 

What is hydrodynamics ? — That branch of general 
mechanics which treats of the equilibrium and mo- 
tion of fluids. 

What is the meaning of the term hydrostatics ? — 
Like hydraulic, it means that part of mechanical 
science which treats of the equilibrium and motion 
of fluids. 

What is impact ?■ — It means the effect of a blow or 
stroke communicated from one source to another, 
whether in motion or at rest. 

What is impetus f — It is the effect produced by the 
velocity of a moving body. 

What is inertia f — It is that property in matter 



140 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

which tends, when at rest, to remain so, and when 
in motion to continue in motion. 

Into what three classes may levers be divided?^ 
Those of the first, second, and third order. When 
the fulcrum is between the force and the weight, the 
lever is of the first order ; when the weight is be- 
tween the force and the fulcrum, the lever is of th« 
second order; and when the force is between the 
weight and the fulcrum, the lever is of the third 
order. 

What is the meaning of the term machine ? — In- 
struments employed to regulate motion, so as to 
save either time or force. 

What is the meaning of the term mass, when ap- 
plied to mechanics ? — The quantity of matter in a 
body. 

What is matter ? — The substances of which bodies 
are composed. 

Define the mechanical powers. — The lever, in- 
clined plane, wheel and axle, pulley, screw, and 
wedge. 

What is momentum $ — It is the same as impetus. 
The momentum of anything is estimated by the 
mass and velocity of the moving body. 

What is motion f — Motion in mechanics is a change 
of place. 

Name the different motions alluded to in mechan- 
ics. — Absolute, accelerated, angular, compound, nat- 
ural, parallel, relative, retarded, rotary, acd uniform. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 141 

What is lost motion ? — Looseness in the recipro- 
cating or revolving parts of steam-engines and other 
machinery. 

How would you take up lost motion ? — By the key 
and gib, wedge, set-screw, or other mechanical ar- 
rangement provided for that purpose. 

Give the meaning of the term pneumatics. — It is 
a science which treats of the mechanical properties 
of elastic fluids, particularly of air. 

What is power ? — The product of force and veloc- 
ity. 

What is the meaning of the term prime movers ? 
— Steam-engines, water-wheels, wind-mills, etc. 

What are tools ? — Instruments employed in facili- 
tating mechanical operations. 

What is the meaning of the term torsion ? — Twist- 
ing or wrenching. 

What is velocity ? — Rate of motion. 

What is weight? — It is generally understood to 
represent the force of attraction between the earth 
and the quantity of matter in any given substance. 

Is weight pressure, and vice versa ? — No ; weight 
presses downward only, while pressure acts in all 
directions. 

Give the meaning of the term plant. — The term 
plant, when employed in connection with manufac- 
turing establishments, railroad companies, etc., means 
all the movable property, tools, machinery, etc., be- 
longing to them. 




142 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

THE SLIDE-VALVE. 

All valves used for the admission and release of 
steam may be divided into eight 
classes, viz., the slide, poppet, 
double-beat, gridiron, basket, 
rotary, semi-rotary, and plug. 
the slide-valve. T he first named is the oldest, 
and, although many innovations have been intro- 
duced since its advent, it has not so far been super- 
seded by any of them, nor is it at all likely that 
it ever will be, as it embodies certain mechanical 
peculiarities which will render its use an imperative 
necessity, under certain circumstances. 

It is claimed, and generally admitted, by engineers, 
that the slide-valve is more wasteful, and absorbs 
more power to work it, than any other design ; never- 
theless, it finds its own bearing, is positive in its 
movements, simple in design, moderate in first cost, 
can be repaired or renewed at a trifling expense, and 
run at a rate of speed which no other valve would 
stand. For locomotives, fast-speed engines, and 
stationary engines of moderate size, the slide-valve 
is better adapted than any other. 

In some designs of engines, four valves are em- 
ployed — two for the admission and two for the re- 
lease ; but the slide-valve performs all the functions 
of the four, and fulfils the requirements of admis- 
sion, cut-off, release, and compression. The long 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 143 

slide-valve, with the double port at each end of the 
cylinder, is coming into very general use, and, when 
properly designed and well constructed, is as eco- 
nomical as any other design. 

Friction of the slide-valve. — Many theories have 
been advanced in relation to the friction of slide- 
valves, and the amount of power absorbed in making 
them, but the question still remains open, as it is one 
of the most difficult problems to solve connected with 
the steam-engine. It is equal in difficulty to any 
attempt to estimate the horse-power of a steam- 
engine, unless we know the condition of the slide- 
valve, the piston, the amount of compression, leak- 
age, back pressure, and whether the ports and valve 
are well proportioned or not. 

If the slide-valve was a solid piece of iron, sliding 
on its seat with a pressure of so many pounds per 
square inch on its back, and no counter-pressure 
against its face, it would not be difficult to estimate 
the amount of power required to work it ; but such 
conditions never exist in a steam-engine, as the ex- 
haust has a tendency to act as a counter-pressure 
to the weight produced by the steam, and (see top 
of page 149) partially relieve the friction this addi- 
tional load on the valve would otherwise produce. 
Besides, it is claimed that either a film of steam or 
water is always floating between the valve space and 
its seat. The former of these ideas is probably 
wrong, while the latter is correct. 



. 



144 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

The gridiron valve is an abbreviation of the slide- 
valve. Instead of one port, there are a number of 
ports, for the admission and escape of steam, conse- 
quently its movement is very limited, and induces a 
small amount of friction. 

The poppet or double-beat valve has the double 
advantage of being easily made and inducing no 
friction ; but, even when well proportioned and 
thoroughly fitted, it becomes leaky when placed under 
steam, on account of the expansion of the spindle 
which connects the valves. 

The rotary and plug valves are a failure, in conse- 
quence of their liability to leak; while the semi- 
rotary, working, or Corliss valves are open to this 
objection, that the moment they are placed in use 
the valve-seats begin to enlarge, while the diameter 
of the valve diminishes, consequently leakage and 
necessary repairs are the result. 

The basket valve is now nearly out of use, and 
does not call for a description here. 

Balance slide-valves. — Different attempts have 
been made to balance the slide-valve, in order to 
diminish its friction, but so far such efforts have not 
accomplished the desired object. This, probably, 
arises from the fact that the adjustment has to be 
made with such accuracy, and the margin is so nar- 
row that, even if the valve could be successfully 
balanced, it would not remain so for any time. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 145 

TECHNICAL TERMS APPLIED TO THE WORKING 
OP STEAM IN THE CYLINDERS OF A STEAM- 
ENGINE. 

The term admission means the admission of the 
steam to the cylinder at the commencement of the 
stroke. 

The term cut- off means that the steam was cut- 
off at a given point in the cylinder. 

The term release means exhaust. 

The term compression means the pressure of the 
steam between the piston and the cylinder-head at 
the end of the stroke. 

The terms induction and eduction were formerly 
used to designate admission and release, but they 
have now become obsolete, and what is now termed 
compression was formerly called cushion. 

Evaporation means converting water into steam ; 
while re-evaporation as applied to the engine signi- 
fies the re-conversion into steam during the exhaust 
of the condensation formed in the cylinder by the 
incoming steam parting with a portion of its heat. 

The term cushion was formerly in very general 
use, but it has become obsolete ; compression having 
superseded it, the difference between cushioning and 
compression is that, in the former case, the valves 
were so arranged as to retain sufficient steam in the 
cylinder to take up the lost motion in the recipro- 
cating and revolving parts of the engine. 
13 K 



146 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

HOW TO SET A SLIDE-VALVE. 

Place the crank on the centre, as shown in the 
illustration on page 82 ; place the eccentric at right 
angles with the crank, as seen in the cut on page 
82 ; place the valve in the centre of its travel, as 
shown in cut on page 14T ; place the rocker plumb 
at right angles with both the cylinder and the crank- 
pin. Then adjust the valve-gear to its proper length, 
move the eccentric forward, as shown in cut on page 
19, until the valve has the desired amount of lead; 
then make the eccentric fast, and turn the crank 
around to the other centre. 

The travel of the valve is always twice the throw of 
the eccentric, and therefore, if properly proportioned 
to the ports, should, if the above instructions have 
foeen complied with, present the same opening at the 
commencement of each stroke. If, however, from any 
cause, the lead prove to be greater on one end than 
the other, the adjustment must be made by length- 
ening or shortening the valve connection. 

In the case of old engines, where the lead becomes 
unequal by wear, the travel of the valve may be 
equalized by placing a tin or sheet-brass liner behind 
or in front of the box which connects the valve-rod 
with the rocker ; when the attachment between the 
valve and the rod is made with jam-nuts, the altera- 
tion can be made there, but, when the valve-rod is 
screwed into a yoke, it is more difficult to make the 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 147 

change, as half a turn of the rod backwards or for« 
wards will make too much alteration. 

The setting of valves, like everything else con* 
nected with steam-engines, is controlled by circum- 
stances, and no instructions can be given that will 
meet the requirements of all cases — much must 
depend on the intelligence and practical ideas of the 
engineer. 

LAP ON THE SLIDE-VALVE. 

The object of " lap," as before stated, is for the 
purpose of working steam expan- 
sively. The terms outside "lap" 
and inside "lap" are in very 
general use; the former means 
steam " lap, " while the latter means exhaust 
"lap." 

When the travel of the valve and point of cut-off 
are known, the " lap" required can be determined by 
table on page 148. Suppose the "lap" for a valve 
of 3 \ -inch travel, to cut-off at f-stroke is required. 
The table gives \ inch which the valve must overlap 
each part when in the centre of its travel. 

The amount of exhaust " lap " required is just 
sufficient to prevent the steam from leaking through 
between the lip of the valve and the edges of the 
exhaust opening, while the steam " lap " must be 
proportioned to the point of cut-off. In automatic 



148 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



cut-off engines, in which admission and release are 
regulated by different valves, "lap" is not necessary. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF LAP REQUIRED FOR STATIONARY 
AND LOCOMOTIVE SLIDE-VALVE ENGINES. 



Travel of 


The Travel of the Piston where the Steam is cut off. 


















the Valve 


* 


i 


fV 


* 


tV 


* 


* 


T* 


in Inches. 


















The required " Lap." 


2 
21 


* 

it 


t 


? 


1 


ft 




f 


A 


3 


It 8 * 


1* 




+* 


* 


1 


f 


3* 


1* 


1A 


s 


U 


ItV 


l 


& 


4 
4* 


If 
2 


ift 


If 


11 


1A 
U 


1 
l* 


f 


5 


»* 


2 


W 


1 + 


if 


H 


l 


51 


2fk 


*& 


2 


m 


1# 


U 


if 


U 


6 


n 


% 


»A 


2 


HI 


it 


1* 


i* 



Rule. — For Finding the Required Amount of Lap 
for a Slide-valve Corresponding to any Desired 
Point of Gut-off. — From the length of stroke of 
piston subtract the length of the stroke made before 
the steam is cut off; divide the remainder by the 
stroke of the piston, and extract the square root of 
the quotient. Multiply this root by half the throw 
of the valve; from the product subtract half the 
lead, and the remainder will give the lap required. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 149 

LEAD OF THE SLIDE-VALVE. 

The object of lead is to enable the steam to enter 
the port just before the crank 
passes the centre, so that the 
port opening may develop rap- 
idly, as the piston and the 
crank approach half stroke ; otherwise the admis- 
sion would be too late, and the volume insufficient, if 
the engine was travelling at a high piston speed, con- 
sequently the power of the engine would be lessened. 

There are other advantages for lead besides that 
explained in the foregoing paragraph. For instance, 
if the velocity of the piston is high, and the load 
heavy, it may be found necessary to give the engine 
more lead, in order to take up the lost motion, and 
balance the momentum of the reciprocating and re- 
volving parts. The amount of lead required for the 
valve of any engine depends, as before stated, on 
circumstances, and must be a matter of discretion 
for the engineer. 

When the shifting link is used, the lead and travel 
of the valve are altered by any change in the position 
of the link. With the stationary valve gear, however, 
while the lead can be varied the travel remains constant. 

Lead fop all classes of engines varies from one- 
thirty-second to one-fourth of an inch, according to 
circumstances, size of engine, and for what purpose 
employed, etc. 
13* 



150 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




THE GARDNER STEAM-ENGINE GOVERNOR. 

THE STEAM-ENGINE GOVERNOR. 

Governors may be divided into two classes, viz., 
the fly-ball governor and the propeller ; these two 
classes embrace many designs and mechanical ar- 
rangements. The fly-ball governor is based on the 
principle of centrifugal force. It makes no differ- 
ence whether the balls are arranged perpendicularly, 
as in the " Corliss," horizontally, as in the " Wal- 
ters ;" whether weight is raised, as in the " Hun- 
toon," or a spring-compressed, as in the " Pickering;" 
whether a series of weights and springs are arranged 
in a disc on the crank-shaft, as in the " Buckeye," or 
whether they rise in the plane in which they swing, 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



151 



as in the " Shives." The principle is just the same 
in all these cases ; it takes a certain speed to raise a 
certain weight, and any increase above that will 
cause the balls, weights, or springs to extend farther 
from the centre to which they are attached, and close 
the steam-valve. Any lagging behind will cause 
them to lower or recede, and open the valve. 

"The Huntoon " governor is based on the prin- 
ciple of the screw propeller, and works in a 
small cistern of oil. Any increase of speed urges 
the propeller forward, and 
causes it to act on a link 
connected with the throttle- 
valve, and diminish the sup- 
ply of steam. Any dimi- 
nution in the speed causes it 
to recede, and increase the 
volume of steam. 

Different designs of gov- 
ernors perform their func- 
tions in different ways. The 
" Corliss " pattern, which 
has been almost universally 
adopted for automatic cut- 
off engines, acts directly on _= g 
the valves outside of the 
steam-chest, while in the THE Pickering steam- 

_ , „ ,,. ENGINE GOVERNOR. 

case of the throttlmg-en- 

gine, the steam passes directly through the governor, 







152 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

and is either choked off or admitted, according to cir- 
cumstances. 

A good governor, or speed-regulator, is very de- 
sirable, as any variation in the speed of the engine is 
attended with loss. The machinery in all factories, 
and for whatever purpose employed, is supposed to 
be speeded to accomplish that object ; any lagging 
below the regular speed will induce loss of produc- 
tion, while any increase of speed over that which the 
engine was intended to accomplish will induce a loss 
of steam, and consequently of fuel. 

There are a great many good governors in the 
market, but it may be said that not one of those 
used for regulating the speed of throttling engines 
ever fulfilled the requirements for which they were 
intended, under all conditions. The invention of 
the governor has been attributed to " Watt," but 
such is not the fact ; the governor was employed for 
other purposes prior to " Watt's " time. 

To increase the speed of a steam-engine, the di- 
ameter of the pulley on the governor-shaft must be 
increased ; to reduce the speed of an engine, the di- 
ameter of the governor pulley must be lessened. All 
governors are speeded in the shops where they are 
manufactured, and the number of revolutions at 
which they will regulate stamped on them ; then all 
that is necessary is to adapt pulleys on the engine 
and governor-shaft to that speed. Though a good 
governor is capable of producing economical results, 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



153 



still there is no power in the governor — it is simply 
a bridle-bit in the horse's mouth. 



THE BROWN REVOLUTION INDICATOR. 

The annexed cut represents Brown's revolution 
jator, which consists of a U- 
shaped tube, with one end closed 
and the other open, communica- 
ting with a column of mercury, 
which rises or falls according to 
the speed, in accordance with 
the law of centrifugal force. 
This instrument is very conven- 
ient, where engines have to be 
speeded up and slacked down 
for special purposes, in rolling- 
mills, steel-mills, and where 
large tires for the wheels of 
locomotives are rolled. It in- 
dicates a speed on a scale which the speed revolu. 
obviates the necessity of count- TION indi cator. 
ing, and shows the speed required for a special pur- 
pose. 

The machinery in all factories is geared for cer- 
tain speeds, the driving-pulley on the engine-shaft 
being made the basis of calculation. Experience has 
shown that it requires a certain speed to cut, turn, 
plane, bore, drill, or check certain materials. If the 




154 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

governor is well designed, and adapted to the pur* 
pose for which it is intended, it will control the 
speed of the engine within the limit which it was 
intended to run, except in extreme changes. 

There are circumstances, however, in which the 
eDgine is required to run at an increased speed for 
short intervals, and this speed should be exactly what ' 
is required to perform the mechanical operation ; as it 
would be impossible to determine the speed under 
such circumstances, either by observation or calcula- 
tion, it is absolutely necessary to have an instru- 
ment that will show the engineer at a glance the 
number of strokes, or revolutions, that the engine is 
making, which requirement the illustration on page 
153 accurately fulfils. 

REVOLUTION AND STROKE. 

The above terms are used to designate the speed 
of steam-engines. The former implies that the crank 
has started from a given point, and, after describing 
a circle, has arrived at the same point again ; while 
in the case of the latter, it is understood that the 
crank moved only from one dead centre to the other, 
and in so doing described a half circle, consequently 
one revolution is equal to two strokes, and two 
strokes to one revolution.- 

Now, when the crank is at right angles with the 
piston, as shown in the cut on page 82, it is at half- 
stroke. The terms inboard and outboard stroke con* 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 155 

vey the impression that the piston and crank are 
moving inward or outward, as the case may be. If, 
when the crank reaches the centre, it moves down- 
ward, that is what is called a downward stroke, but 
if, on the contrary, it moves upward, it is termed an 
upward stroke. 

Any engine may be adapted to either a downward 
or an upward stroke — or to run under or over, as 
it is sometimes called — by simply moving the valve 
gear. Whether an engine will run under or over is 
not a consideration of design ; it is simply an arrange- 
ment to meet the circumstances of the case, and is 
intended to meet the purposes for which the engine 
is employed. 

The stroke of an engine is twice the distance 
between the centre of the crank-shaft and the centre 
of the crank-pin. If the crank is 10 inches between 
the centres, the engine will be 20 inches stroke ; if 
12 inches, it will be 24 inches stroke, because its 
travel from one dead centre to the other will be 2 
feet or 24 inches. A revolution is two strokes ; 
when the crank starts from the centre and returns 
to the same centre, it has made a revolution. 

The travel in feet of any piston may be found as 
follows: — Multiply the distance it travels for one 
stroke by the whole number of strokes, and if in 
inches divide by 12. Example. — Stroke, 15 inches ; 
number of strokes, 300. 300 X 15 = 4500 -r- 12 = 375 
feet per minute. 



156 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



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THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK, 157 




THE STEAM-WHISTLE. 

THE STEAM-WHISTLE. 

The steam-whistle, like chiming bells in churches, 

is either a pleasure or a nuisance. Doubtless they 

have done good service in the past as well as much 

•mischief. A prudent use of the whistle has un- 

14 



158 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

doubtedly saved many lives, by warning those in 
the immediate vicinity of passing trains at railroad 
crossings to beware, while a reckless use of it often 
induces runaways, by frightening horses attached to 
carriages and other vehicles. 

It would be difficult to run railway trains without 
the use of a whistle, especially at sharp curves in 
the road, deep cuttings, and at the entrance and 
exit of tunnels. Still, there ought to be a restrain- 
ing influence in regard to its use. The bell on a 
locomotive answers a good purpose, but can never 
take the place of the whistle, nor vice versa. The 
steam-whistle is very convenient, in fact it is even 
desirable, in manufacturing localities, as it is cus- 
tomary in some factories to blow it at six o'clock, 
A. M., as an admonition to the operatives to be up 
and prepare for the day's labor. 

The foregoing is a strong plea for the whistle, as 
it obviates any anxiety on the part of the sleeper, 
or the annoyance of rising from bed to examine 
clocks in inclement weather. A judicious use of the 
whistle in every steam-using community would be 
a great convenience, if they were all blown at 6.00, 
6.30, and 6.55 o'clock, A. M. 

The shrill sound of the whistle is caused by the 
steam escaping through a narrow circular opening 
in the cup, and impinging against the thin feather- 
edge of the bell. If the bell is raised or lowered it 
will make a different sound in the whistle. The 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 159 

metal of which the bell is made can be mixed so as to 
give the whistle any desired sound. Whistles are 
almost invariably made of brass ; still there are 
some large iron whistles in use, which have a deep, 
heavy, sonorous sound, while good brass has a clean, 
sharp, ringing sound. 




THE STEAM PRESSURE-GAUGE. 



THE STEAM-GAUGE. 

Steam-gauges may be divided into four classes, 
viz., mercury, spring, siphon, and vacuum. The 
steam-gauge, like the glass water-gauge, is one of 
the most useful, beautiful, and interesting inven- 
tions that ever emanated from the mind of the 
scientist, the inventor, or the mechanician Those 



i 



160 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

who would neglect or abuse the steam or glass 
gauges have no appreciation of useful inventions. 

The advantages of spring gauges are, that they 
are light, cheap, and simple, and are not affected by 
jar or jolting. It can also be used as a vacuum- 
gauge by reversing the application of the pressure, 
which has a contrary effect on the tube, as shown 
in cut on page 162. The siphon gauge has most 
undoubtedly passed out of use, and has been super- 
seded by the mercurial gauge, which consists of a 
glass tube, open at the lower end and closed at the 
top, containing air in its ordinary state. Its lower 
end is placed in a cistern of mercury. 

When the cock is opened the steam passes 
through, forcing the mercury up the glass tube, 
thereby compressing the air in the tube above the 
mercury. The spring gauge is destined to super- 
sede all others, as it is now made to meet almost 
every requirement, and any designated pressure up 
to thousands of pounds per square inch. 

Cut on page 161 shows an inside view of the 
Crosby standard steam-gauge. As may be observed, 
it consists of a hollow brass tube, a lever, connect- 
ing-link, sector, pinion, and pointer. Its operation 
is as follows: Pressure is exerted on the tubes 
through the nipple, the effect of which is to elon- 
gate or straighten it. The consequence is that the 
link draws the lever and the sector, which moves 
the pinion, not shown, and carries the pointer. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 161 




SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE STEAM PRESSURE-GAUGE. 



SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE STEAM-GAUGE. 
14* L 



162 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

The higher the pressure the more the tubes will be 
expanded or elongated, and the higher the pointer 
will be carried up. As the pressure decreases, the 
tubes have a tendency to contract, and the pointer 
again assumes its natural position at zero. 

In cut on page 161, the mechanical arrangement is 
reversed, though the principle is the same as in the 
former case. The pressure exerted in the hollow 
tube has a tendency to expand or elongate it, the 
result of which is that the link draws the sector 
(which swings on the stud) to the right, the upper 
end of which turns the pinion, which carries the 
pointer to the right also ; a coiled spring is attached 
to the stud, which carries the pointer to assist in 
bringing it back to a state of rest as the pressure 
decreases. 




THE VACUUM GAUGE. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



163 



ATTACHMENTS, TOOLS, AND FITTINGS USED IN 
CONNECTION WITH STEAM-ENGINES AND 
BOILERS. 

No. 1. 



No. 3. 




Screw stop-valve. 
No. 4. 




Stop-valve, with 

tap, union, 

and pet-cock. 

No. 7. 

9 s 

Gauge-cock. 

No. 9. 






Stop-valve, check- 
valve, and 
goose-neck. 



No. 6. 
Drip-cock. 



Flat spanner. 
No. 10. 



Round spanner. 



Monkey-wrench. 



164 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

No. 11. No. 12. 



Double-end fork-wrench. Yoke-wrench with slot. 

No. 14. 



No. 13. 

^^ 

Single fork-wrench. 

No. 17. 




Union or cup 
and roll- 
joint. 



Tap-bolt. 



Set screw. Hexagon nut 



No. 19. 

Stud-bolt. 
No. 23. 



Long tap-bolt. 

No. 22. 



No. 21. 



, ..,.,, Elbow with 

3£ta&. Tee. nipple. 





No. 29. 




Bushing. 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 165 

THE SCREW-PROPELLER AND PADDLE-WHEEL 

The screw- propeller is precisely the same in prin- 
ciple as the thread on a bolt, 
and when the propeller makes 
a revolution in the water the 
vessel advances just the same 
distance that it would if it 
was a nut, and made a revo- 
lution on the bolt. The screw 
has been applied to different 
purposes, such as raising the~Vour-bladed 
water, transferring grain, as screw-propeller. 
well as the propulsion of vessels, which is a very 
ancient mechanical arrangement. Its invention has 
been attributed to Archimides, but who the real in- 
ventor was will probably never be known, as, ac- 
cording to Erbank, it was used since time imme- 
morial for raising fluids. 

Propellers may be classed under two heads, viz., 
the true screw and screw of expanding pitch, and 
again by the number of blades ; the latter greatly 
depending upon the duty the propeller has to 
perform, four blades being the number most gen- 
erally adopted for river, lake, and ocean steamers. 
The reason of the general adoption of the four- 
bladed propeller is, that there is less slip to it than 
there is to the two- or three-biaded screw; conse- 
quently the advance of a vessel for a revolution of 



166 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

the former is more positive than it would be in case 
of the latter, but it induces more friction and absorbs 
more power than either of the latter. 

In experiments to determine the comparative 
efficiency of a propeller and paddle-wheel, it has been 
demonstrated that, under similar circumstances, there 
is very little difference between them. For deep 
water, the propeller is superior to the paddle-wheel ; 
while in rivers, where the depth is limited, or in- 
fluenced by load, the paddle-wheel is more available 
than the propeller ; besides, the former is less liable 
to be disabled by the shots of an enemy in the time 
of war than the latter. 

Paddle-wheel steamers are generally propelled by 
beam engines, which are influenced by oscillation in- 
duced by the wind. They have almost been aban- 
doned for ocean service, and are now principally 
employed for pleasure, excursion, lake, river, harbor, 
and ferry-boat service. For the latter service they 
are well adapted, as such boats are double-enders, 
and do not require to be turned around. Paddle- 
wheel boats are divided into two classes — side and 
stern wheelers. 

Paddle-wheels are designated under two heads — 
radial and feathering. Of the latter the Manley has 
probably achieved the greatest success, but owing 
to the feathering arrangement being complicated, 
it has not been adopted to any great extent. The 
radial wheel is therefore in most general use. It 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. J 67 

is based on the principle of the undershot water- 
wheel, and such devices were used before for other 
purposes, and even for propulsion in insignificant 
and obscure cases. Robert Fulton was the first to 
demonstrate its adaptability to steamboats. 

The diameter of the screw is a circle which it de= 
scribes m making a revolution; the pitch is the dis- 
tance the screw would naturally travel forward in one 
revolution were there no opposition. The slip of the 
sere wis the amount that it lacks, by a revolution in the 
water, behind that which it would advance if revolv- 
ing on a solid nut. It is claimed that in some in- 
stances the propeller runs faster than a ship, and 
also that the ship runs faster than the propeller, 
which, of course, is impossible. Nevertheless, there 
are certain phenomena connected with the foregoing 
statement which have never been clearly explained. 

The best propeller for any vessel is the one best 
suited for that model regardless of the number of 
blades, diameter, or pitch. The Ericsson, Delameter, 
and Herreshoff propellers are those most generally 
used. Although the Loper screw is sometimes used, 
it is fast giving way to the above-named propellers. 



168 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

AIR. 

The atmosphere, according to Luecicks, extends 
to an altitude of at least 45 miles above sea-level ; 
100 cubic inches of air at the surface of the earth, 
when the barometer stands at 34 inches, and the 
temperature is 60° Fah., weighs about 31 grains. 

Air is 815 times lighter than water, and 11,065 
times lighter than mercury. The pressure of the 
air is not the same at different altitudes ; at 7 miles 
above the surface of the earth, the air is 4 times 
lighter than it is at the surface ; at 14 miles, it is 16 
times lighter ; and at 21 miles, it is 64 times lighter. 

The pressure of the atmosphere at sea-level, for 
convenience' sake, is laid down in most of the scien- 
tific works as 14 t 7 q pounds per square inch ; but, as 
before stated, it varies with location and altitude. 
For instance, while at Altoona, Pa., it is 14 t |-q, at 
Mount Lincoln, Col., it is 7 T §-g-, and at Pike's Peak 
it is Tyq. The pressure of a column of air, whose 
base is one square foot and altitude the height of the 
atmosphere, has been estimated to be 2156 pounds, 
avoirdupois, or between 14 T 7 U and 15 pounds per 
square inch. 

In Watt's time, atmospheric air, steam, or vapors 
were not estimated in pounds per square inch, but 
by atmospheres, thus : If the atmosphere, or vapor, 
was equal to 30 pounds per square inch, it was said 
to be two atmospheres, and capable of supporting 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 169 

about 30 inches of mercury, or a column of water 34 
feet high ; but the pressure of the atmosphere is not 
constant, except at the equator. In some countries 
the pressure of the atmosphere varies so much as to 
support a column of mercury so low as 28 inches, 
and at other times as high as 31, the mean being 

29 T V 

Air penetrates all porous substances, and mixes 
with the blood of men, animals, fish, and fowl. 
This circulation through the interior of the bodies 
of men and animals counter-balances its outer press- 
ure, because, if its weight were not neutralized, 
neither man nor beast could walk, and would be as 
mute as statues of stone, as the lips once closed 
could never again be opened. If it was possible to 
remove the atmosphere from a room, even for an in- 
stant, all the glass in the doors and windows would 
be immediately forced in, or, if a partial vacuum 
was formed on the outside, all the windows in the 
building would be expelled into the street. 

Now, if the atmosphere exerts a pressure of nearly 
15 pounds per square inch, why does it not crush 
men and animals, cause bleeding at the nose and 
ears, convulsions, etc. ? Because, though a pound of 
air is as heavy as a pound of lead, in the case of the 
air it is a balance under our feet, in our lungs, our 
blood, and clothing, while the lead presses in one 
direction, downward, only. 

Thirteen thousand eight hundred and seventeen 
15 



170 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

cubic feet of air will weigh about one pound ; conse« 
quently, one cubic foot of air, at sea-level, will weigh 
about 55 grains, or nearly one-quarter of an ounce 
avoirdupois ; but, under a pressure of about 10,000 
pounds, air becomes as dense as water, and weighs 
about the same per cubic foot. 

Air expands but one volume for every 493° Fah., 
consequently, to double this volume, it would re- 
quire a temperature of 986°. 1000 parts of air at 
32°, or freezing, would only increase stso^^ m v °l" 
ume at a temperature of 680° Fah., which explains 
the fact that air-engines are incapable of developing 
much power. A steam-engine, with a cylinder of a 
given area, would develop more power than an air- 
engine of four times the area or calibre. Besides, 
the air-engine would require to be built more care- 
fully to prevent leakage, as the same joints or con- 
nections that will hold steam of a given pressure 
will leak air under less pressure. 

The caloric, or hot-air engine, that at one kime 
W4S claimed would compete with, or even supercede, 
tYe steam-engine, has signally failed, and is not em- 
ptayed any more, except at country hotels, private 
re* -j'dences, academies, schools, etc., for the purpose 
of pumping water, in consequence of their freedom 
frc oi the danger of explosion on account of the ab- 
se; ce of a boiler. 

The air is simply drawn in by a pump, and ex- 
pa aded in a hot cylinder, after which it forces the 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 171 

piston up, and as the upper end of the cylinder is 
open, and exposed to the pressure of the air, the 
pressure of the atmosphere forces it down. The 
substitution of air for steam is an old idea, but so 
far it has proved a failure, as it ever must. 

Under the pressure of a single atmosphere, the 
density of the air is about the IT Oth part of that 
of water ; hence it follows that, under the pressure 
of 110 atmospheres, air is as dense as water. The 
average atmospheric pressure being thus equal to 
that of a column of water of about 32 feet in alti- 
tude, at the bottom of the sea, at a depth of 24,640 
(equals 110 multiplied by 32) feet, or 4f miles, air 
would be heavier than water, and, even though it 
should remain in a gaseous state, it would be inca- 
pable of rising to the surface. 

Air, next to electricity, is the most insinuating of 
all gases or fluids, as, while it may be expelled 
under certain conditions, and a partial vacuum pro- 
duced, it is almost impossible to keep it out. For 
this reason the joints, that would be perfectly 
tight under steam or water pressure, would leak air 
very rapidly under the same pressure. An air-en- 
gine would require twice as many bolts to make 
tight, under a given pressure, as the steam-engine, 
working under the same pressure. 

It will be seen from the following table, page 173, 
that 1000 parts of air raised from 32° to 212° Fab. 
increase only 315 fold in bulk, while 1000 parts of 



172 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

water raised through the same degrees of tempera, 
ture increase 1*7,000 fold in volume, which proves 
that the air- or caloric-engine can never possibly 
supersede the steam-engine, or even compete with 
it, even if air could be liquefied or condensed, which 
is not at all likely that it ever will be for practical 
purposes. Air has been condensed, but only under 
circumstances which give no encouragement to its 
employment as a motor. 

Nevertheless, air is destined to play a very impor- 
tant part in the mechanic arts and in the prosecution 
of some very important enterprises, as compressed 
air can be successfully employed instead of steam 
for drilling in mines, driving tunnels, and for rapid 
transit, as it obviates the objectionable and unhealthy 
odors which result from the consumption of fuel in 
confined localities, where ventilation is imperfect. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



173 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE EXPANSION OF AIR BY HEAT, AND THE INCREASE 
IN BULK IN PROPORTION TO INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE. 



Fahrenheit. 


Bulk. 


Fahrenheit 


Bulk. 


Temp. 32 Freezing-point. 


1000 


Temp. 75 Temperate 


1099 


33 


1002 


" 76 Summer heat... 


1101 


" 34 


1004 


77 


1104 


35 


1007 


78 


1106 


36 " 


1009 


79 " 


1108 


37 


1012 


80 


1110 


38 " 


1015 


81 


1112 


39 " 


1018 


82 " 


1114 


40 " 


1021 


83 


1116 


41 


1023 


84 


1118 


42 " 


1025 


85 


1121 


43 


1027 


86 


1123 


44 


1030 


87 


1125 


"45 " 


1032 


88 


1128 


46 


1034 


89 


1130 


47 


1036 


90 


1132 


48 


1038 


91 


1134 


49 " 


1040 


92 


1136 


50 


1043 


93 


1138 


51 


1045 


94 


1140 


52 " 


1047 


95 


1142 


53 


1050 


96 Blood heat 


1144 


« 54 


1052 


97 


1146 


55 


1055 


98 


1148 


" 56 Temperate 


1057 


99 


1150 


57 


1059 


" 100 


1152 


58 


1062 


110 Fever heat 112 


1173 


" 59 


1064 


120 


1194 


60 " 


1066 


" 130 


1215 


61 " 


1069 


" 140 


1235 


62 


1071 


150 


1255 


63 


1073 


160 


1275 


64 


1075 


170 Spirits boil 176 


1295 


! « 65 


1077 


180 


1315 


66 


1080 


" 190 


1334 


67 


1082 


" 200 


1364 


68 


1084 


210 " 


1372 


69 


1087 


" 212 Water boils 


1375 


70 " 


1089 


" 302 


1558 


71 " 


1091 


" 392 


1739 


72 


1093 


" 482 


1919 


73 


1095 


572 " 


2098 


74 


1097 


" 680 


2312 



174 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE WEIGHT AND COMPOSITION OP SATURATED 
AIR. 

1 cubic foot of air at 32° Fah., under a pressure of 14.7 
pounds per square inch, weighs .080728 pound. 
Therefore, 1000 cubic feet = 80.728 pounds. 

23 per cent, oxygen, 
per cent, nitrogen. 

.29716 oz. oxygen. 

.99484 oz. nitrogen. 
1.29200 total weight. 
,0185725 lb. oxygen. 
,0621555 lb. nitrogen. 



1 cubic foot = 1.292 oz. 



1 cubic foot of air contains 



1 cubic foot of air contains 



f 23 

1 77 



•{ 



53.85 cubic feet of air contain 



! 



.080728 lb. 
1.000 lbs. oxygen. 
3.347 lbs. nitrogen. 
I3471bs. 



For combustion to carbonic acid 1 pound of coal 
requires 2f pounds of oxygen, or 143.6 cubic feet of 
air, supposing all of the oxygen to combine with the 
coal. 280 to 300 cubic feet of air per pound of coal 
is the usual allowance for imperfect combustion. 

11.59 pounds of air for perfect combustion. 
24 pounds of s,ir for imperfect combustion. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 175 

AIR-PUMPS. 




THE TURNER CONDENSER AND AIR-PUMP. 

Air-pumps are used for a great variety of pur- 
poses, the most important of which is the extraction 
of the air and water from the condensers of low- 
pressure or condensing engines. There appears to 
be great latitude in proportioning air-pumps among 
marine engineers, as, while some make the capacity 
of the air-pump one-eighth that of the low-pressure 
cylinder, others make it one-eleventh. This latter is 
generally recognized in good practice. 

The capacity of air-pumps for jet-condensing en- 
gines ranges from one-fifteenth to one-twentieth of 
the capacity of the cylinder. It is generally under- 
stood by engineers that it takes from 20 to 26 times 
as much vrater to condense steam as that from which 



176 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

it was evaporated, consequently an air-pump should 
be proportioned to the quantity of water and air to 
be extracted from the condenser. An air-pump too 
large or too small to meet the requirements for which 
it was intended, induces a loss of power. 

The air-pump of a jet-condensing engine with- 
draws both the injection water and the water of 
condensation, while in the surface condenser it ex- 
tracts only the water of condensation ; consequently, 
the service to be performed in the former case would 
be from 22 to 26 times greater than in the latter. 
Air-pumps are generally worked from some portion 
of the engine, to which they are attached in order 
that the stroke of the air-pump and that of the en- 
gine may be uniform. They are often located on 
the top of the condenser, while in some instances 
they are placed side by side, and in others worked 
independent of the engine. Nearly all ocean steamers 
carry auxiliary air-pumps, which are available in 
case of accident. The strain to which an air-pump 
is subjected on a condensing-engine is greater than 
in the case of the ordinary lift and force pump, be- 
cause, in the latter case, after a partial vacuum is 
once formed, the atmosphere has a tendency to force 
the water up, while in the former the air-pump has 
to lift the water, and also resist the pressure of the 
atmosphere, which is equal to 14 t 7 q pounds on each 
square inch of the area of the piston. 

Air-pumps may be either vertical, horizontal, or 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 177 

incline, according to circumstances. They are con- 
structed both single- and double-acting, and desig- 
nated solid, bucket, and piston plunger, the latter being 
invariably double-acting, but in any case the openings 
through which the water enters the pump-barrel from 
the condenser, and from which it escapes through 
the valves, should be of such capacity as to not re- 
quire a higher speed than from 8 to 10 feet per second. 
A vacuum can be produced in the condenser without 
an air-pump, but it cannot be maintained, for the air 
cannot, though the steam may, be successfully con- 
densed ; as a result, it will soon occupy the con- 
denser, choke the engine, and prevent it from 
working. 

An air-pump may be dispensed with when there 
is sufficient fall to use an injector-condenser, which 
ought to be at least 13 feet; but when it becomes 
necessary to use a pump for the purpose of lifting 
the water into the condenser, such an arrangement 
does not pay. 

AIR-VESSELS. 

Air-vessels are frequently placed on the delivery- 
pipe, or over the valve casing of steam-, lift-, and 
force-pumps, and fire-engines. The object of an air- 
vessel on the delivery-pipe of a pump is to insure a 
steady supply of water, which would otherwise be 
interrupted by the presence of the atmosphere, and 
M 



178 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




also to prevent the pump from knocking. The func- 
tion of an air-vessel on the suction-pipe of a pump 
is to aid in insuring a constant sup- 
ply of fluid to the pump. Manufac- 
turers of air-vessels, as well as those 
who purchase or apply them, do not 
seem to be governed by any fixed 
rule in regard to their proportions. 
Their capacity generally ranges from 
four to six times that of the water 
cylinder of ordinary steam-pumps; 
for fire-engines they are much larger. 
A cheap air-vesse! can be impro- 
vised for either the suction or delivery pipes of lift- 
and force-pumps by taking a piece of wrought-iron 
tubing, with a thread on each end, one end of which 
should be closed with a cap, and the other attached 
to the pipe by means of a reducing coupling. Its 
capacity for delivery-pipes through which water is 
forced against pressure, should be at least four times 
that of the water cylinder; for suction-pipes three 
times that of the cylinder would suffice. The larger 
the air-vessel, the better and steadier the pump will 
work. Nevertheless, large air-vessels intended to 
resist high pressures have to be manufactured with 
great care, and are necessarily expensive. 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 179 

WATER. 

Water is not, as was commonly supposed, a sim- 
ple, but is composed of two gases, 
oxygen and hydrogen, in the propor- 
tions of two measures of hydrogen 
to one of oxygen, or 1 weight of hy- 
drogen to 8 of oxygen ; or, oxygen 
89 parts by weight, and by measure 
1 part; hydrogen by weight 11 parts, 
and by measure 2 parts. Water, like all other fluids 
and gases, expands with heat and contracts with 
cold, down to 40° Fah. 

Ebullition, op boiling of water, or other liquids, is 
effected by the communication of heat through the 
separation of their particles. The evaporation of 
water is the conversion of it as a liquid into a va- 
por. Water cannot be vaporized by the application 
of heat to the top of the vessel containing it. 

Water attains its minimum volume and maximum 
density at 40° Fah., and any departure from this 
temperature, in either direction, is accompanied by 
expansion, so that 8 or 10 degrees of cold produce 
the same amount of expansion as 8 or 10 degrees of 
heat. The boiling-point of water is the temperature 
at which the tension of its vapor exactly balances 
the pressure of the atmosphere ; but the tempera- 
ture at which ebullition begins depends upon the 
elasticity or weight of the air, at sea-level, with the 



180 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

barometer at 29.905, or nearly 30 inches of mer- 
cury. 

Water will boil at 212° Fah., but at high altitudes 
it will boil at a lower temperature. Water at a nor 
mal temperature of 70° Fah. will boil at one degree 
less for every 550 feet above sea-level. At the 
height of a mile the boiling temperature of water 
will correspond to about 560 feet elevation above the 
sea. The force exerted by water in freezing by ex- 
pansion is equal to j^q of its original bulk. Water 
boils in a vacuum at 98° Fah. 

All waters are not equally adapted for the produc- 
tion of steam, as water holding salt in solution, 
earth, sand, or mud in suspension, requires a higher 
temperature to produce steam of the same elastic 
force than that generated from pure water. If a 
pound of ice at 32° Fah. be mixed with a pound of 
water at 110° Fah., the water will gradually dissolve 
the ice, being just sufficient for that purpose, and 
the residuum will be two pounds of water 32° Fah., 
showing that the 79 units of heat, which were ap- 
parently lost, had been employed in performing a 
certain amount of work, viz., in melting the ice, or 
separating the molecules, and giving them another 
shape ; and as all work requires a supply of heat to 
do it, these 19 units have been consumed in perform- 
ing the work necessary to melt the ice. 

If a pound of water, at a given temperature, is 
converted into ice, it would necessarily have to part 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 181 

with 79 units of heat ; and if a pound of ice, at 32° 
Fah., be mixed with a pound of water at 212° Pah., 
the ice will be melted, and the result will be two 
pounds of water at a temperature of 122° Fah., 
which shows that the ice in melting has absorbed 
enough heat to raise the temperature of two pounds 
of water 122° Fah. This is what is termed latent 
heat, the latent heat of liquefaction. Water is taken 
at 142° Fah. 

The specific gravity of the waters of different seas 
vary — that of the Dead Sea being 1240, the Medi- 
terranean 1029, the Irish Channel 1028, and the 
Baltic Sea 1015. 

A cubic foot of fresh water weighs 621 pounds 
and contains 1i United States gallons; 36 cubit feet 
of fresh water weigh one ton, and 35 feet of salt 
water is the same weight. This is accounted for in 
consequence of the salt water being more dense than 
the fresh. 

The quantity of water discharged in a given time 
through the same orifice, but under different heads, 
equals the square root of the corresponding height 
of water. Circular orifices are the most efficient 
through which to discharge a given quantity of 
water in a given time. Small orifices discharge pro- 
portionally in a given time sooner than those that 
Are larger and of the same shape, which fact is dut 
to the friction. 
16 



182 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 



BHOWING THE BOILING-POINTS OF LIQUIDS UNDER PRESSUR3 
OF ONE ATMOSPHERE. 





Temp. Fall. 




Temp. Fall. 


Sulphuric ether 




. 100 


Sea-water 


. 213 


Sulphuret of carbon 


. 118 


Saturated brine 


. 226 


Ammonia • 




. 140 


Nitric acid . 


. 248 


Chloroform . 




. 140 


Oil of turpentine 


. 315 


Bromine 




. 145 


Phosphorus . 


. 554 


Wood spirits 




. 150 


Sulphur 


. 570 


Alcohol 




. 173 


Sulphuric acid 


. 590 


Benzine 




. 176 


Linseed oil • 


. . 597 


Water . 




. 212 


Mercury . 


. . 648 






TABLE 





SHOWING THE BOILING-POINT FOR FRESH WATER AT DIFFER- 
ENT ALTITUDES ABOVE SEA-LEVEL. 



Boiling- 


Altitude 


Boiling- 


Altitude 


Boiling- 


Altitude 


point in 
deg. Fah. 


above sea- 


point in 


above sea- 


point in 
deg. Fah. 


above sea- 


level in ft. 


deg. Fah. 


level in ft. 


level in ft. 


184° 


15221 


195° 


9031 


206° 


3115 


185° 


14649 


196° 


8481 


207° 


2589 


186° 


14075 


197° 


7932 


208° 


2063 


187° 


13498 


198° 


7381 


209° 


1539 


188° 


12934 


199° 


6843 


210° 


1025 


189° 


12367 


200° 


6304 


211° 


512 


190° 


11799 


201° 


5764 


212° 


sea- \ n 
level/— u 


191° 


11243 


202° 


5225 




192° 


10685 


203° 


4697 






193° 


10127 


204° 


4169 


Belov 


j sea-level 


194° 


9579 


205° 


3642 


213° 


511 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



183 



TABLE 



«m»WING THE WEIGHT OF WATER IN PIPE OF VARIOUS DIAM« 
ETERS ONE FOOT IN LENGTH. 



Weight 

in 
Pounds. 



5 

in 

6 

&A 
ft 
» 

8A 



<$A 
9 K 

9g 
10 

10K 

i?« 

\\A 

\M 

12 



15^ 
15^ 



Weight 

in 
Pounds. 

51 

59^1 
62i| 

82 

mi 

& 

90 
92^ 



101^ 
104^ 
107^ 

113^ 
116^ 

123 

129i| 

132 

13614 

148*2 

150^1 

157^ 

165 



23H 

8* 

25^ 
26 

27 

27^ 

28 

28^ 

29 

29^ 



31^ 
32 

lt A 
33 

8* 

8* 

8* 

8* 

38 

38^ 

39 

39^ 

40 



184 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

RULES 

FOR CALCULATING THE QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED 
FOR DIFFERENT SPECIFIC PURPOSES. 

Rule for finding the Time a Cistern will take in 
filling, when a known Quantity of Water is going 
in and a known Quantity is going out, in a given 
time. — Divide the contents of the cistern, in gallons, 
by the difference of the quantity going in and the 
quantity going out, and the quotient is the time in 
hours and parts that the cistern will take in filling. 

Rule for finding the Time a Vessel will take in 
Emptying itself of Water. — Multiply the square 
root of the depth in feet by the area of the falling 
surface in inches ; divide the product by the area of 
the orifice, multiply by 3.1, and the quotient is the 
time required in seconds, nearly 

Rule for finding the Quantity of Water discharged 
through an Orifice per Minute. — Multiply the area 
of the orifice in square feet by the square root of the 
height of the level of the water above the orifice in 
feet, and the product multiplied by 29T.6 will be 
equal to the discharge in cubic feet, nearly. 

Rule for finding the Quantity of Water a Steam- 
boiler or any Cylindrical Vessel will contain. — 
Multiply the area of the head or base in inches by 
the length in inches, and divide the product by 1*728 ; 
the quotient will be the number of cubic feet of water 
the boiler or vessel will contain. If the boiler contains 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 185 

flues or tubes, their combined area in inches by their 
length in inches must be deducted from the above 
product. 

Rule for finding the Requisite Quantity of Water 
for a Steam-boiler. — When the number of pounds 
of coal consumed per hour can be ascertained, di- 
vide it by 1.5, and the quotient will be the required 
quantity of water in cubic feet per hour. 

Rule for finding the Required Height of a Col- 
umn of Water to supply a Steam-boiler against any 
given Pressure of Steam. — Multiply the boiler press- 
ure in pounds per square inch by 2.5 ; the product 
will be the required height in feet above the surface 
of the water in the boiler. 

Ruh for finding the Diameter of a Pipe sufficient 
to Discharge a given Quantity of Water per Minute 
in Cubic Feet. — Multiply the square of the quantity 
in cubic feet per minute by .96, and the product 
equals the diameter of the pipe in inches. 

Rule for finding the Number of U. S. Gallons 
contained in a Foot of Pipe of any given Diameter. 
— Square the diameter of the pipe in inches, multi- 
ply the square by .0408 ; the product is F. S. gal- 
lons. 

Rule for finding the Power required to raise 
Water to any Height. — Multiply the perpendicular 
height of the water, in feet, by the velocity also in 
feet, and by the square of the pump's diameter in 
inches, and again by .341 ; divide this product by 
16* 



186 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

33,000, and one-fifth of the quotient added to the 
whole quotient will be the number of horse-power 
required. 

Rule for finding the Pressure in Pounds per 
Square Inch exerted by a Column of Water. — 
Multiply the height of the column in feet by 0.434, 
and the product will be the pressure in pounds per 
square inch. 

Rule for finding the Head of Water in Feet, 
Pressure being knoion. — Multiply the pressure per 
square inch by 2.314. The pressure per square foot 
equals the height of the column in feet multiplied by 
62.4. 

Rule for finding the Quantity of Water which any 
Square or Rectangidar Box or Tank is capable of 
containing in Cubic Feet or U. S. Gallons. — Multiply 
the length of the sides in inches by their height in 
inches; then multiply the width of the ends in inches 
by their height in inches. Add these products together 
and divide by 1728. The product will be the contents 
in cubic feet. This result being multiplied by 7.5 
gives the cubical contents in U. S. gallons. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 187 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF GALLONS OF WATER 
USED PER CAPITA FOR CULINARY, MANUFACTURING, AND 
SANITARY PURPOSES, AND FOUNTAINS, IN THE PRINCIPAL 
CITIES OF THIS COUNTRY AND EUROPE. 

Galls. 

Washington, D. C 158 

New York 100 

Brooklyn 50 

Philadelphia 55 

Baltimore 40 

Chicago 75 

Boston 60 

Albany, N. Y 80 

Detroit 83 

Jersey City, N. J 99 

Buffalo, N. Y. . 61 

Cleveland 40 

Columbus 30 

Montreal 55 

Toronto 77 

London, England 29 

Liverpool, " . . 23 

Glasgow, Scotland 50 

Edinburg, " 38 

Dublin, Ireland . 25 

Paris, France 28 

Tours, " 22 

Toulouse, " 26 

Lyons, ** 20 

Leghorn, Italy 30 

Berlin, Prussia 20 

Hamburg 33 



188 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



o g 



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373.0 
447.6 
522.2 
596.8 
671.4 
746.0 
820.6 
895.2 
969.8 
1044.4 
1119.0 
1193.6 
1268.2 
1342.8 
1417.4 
1492.0 


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CNCNCOCO"*"*iCiCOcOI>-I>I>COCOOi 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



189 



Depth 

©oao-^Oi^^WtOH^OOQo-cictc^ i n Feet. 



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Example. — Diameter of tank, 96 inches, depth 108 
Liches— then the area x by 108 inches = 781725.6 
inches ~ by 1728 the result will be 452.381 cubic 
feet, which, if multiplied by 7.5, will give as a result 
3393 gallons. 



190 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



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In the case of tapering tanks, take the diameter, 
four-tenths, from the large end, square it, and mul- 
tiply by the decimal .7854, which will give the area. 
Multiply this product by. the entire depth in inches, 
and divide by 1728. The result will be the cubic 
feet, and if multiplied by 7.5, the quotient will be 
the contents in gallons (see pages 189, 190). 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 191 

HEAT. 

At no very distant period heat was supposed to be 
a fluid, and, like air and water, capa- ^^-r-^^nnnnn^ 
ble of uniting with other substances, ^'/ 
according to their affinities for it. ^ a "»«*MjSiy^ 

Demonstration and experiment have shown that heat 
is a mode of matter, and is due to cause and effect, 
and that its influence, like gravity, is governed by 
natural laws. 

According to Rumford, the mechanical equivalent 
of heat, as determined by Mr. Joule, of Manchester, 
is one of the most useful factors in heat investigation. 
This gentleman, by very careful and precise experi- 
ments, extending through several years, established 
the value in foot-pounds of work of a British ther- 
mal unit, and conversely the energy requisite to pro- 
duce a unit of heat. Joule discovered that the 
energy necessary to add one thermal unit to one 
pound of water was equal to 7 TO foot-pounds. 

The specific heat of a body is the capacity of that 
body to absorb heat as compared with water. Water 
possesses the highest specific heat of any known sub- 
stance except hydrogen gas. Thus, while one ther- 
mal unit will raise the temperature of one pound of 
water one degree at 60° Fah., at a pressure of one 
atmosphere, 3000 thermal units are required to raise 
the temperature of the same weight of hydrogen 
one degree, under the same pressure and atmosphere. 



192 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

If the Marriotte law were strictly correct, the spe- 
cific heat of gases would be the same for constant 
volume or constant pressure ; but Regnault's exper- 
iments have shown that the specific heat is greatest 
for constant pressure. 

Different bodies require different quantities of 
heat, to effect in them the same change of tempera- 
ture. The capacity of a body for heat is termed its 
"specific heat," and may be defined as the number 
of units of heat necessary to raise the temperature 
of one pound of that body 1° Fah. 

As different substances vary greatly in their mo- 
lecular constitution, expanding and contracting the 
same amount with widely different degrees of force, 
it is to be expected that the same quantity of heat 
that will raise one substance to a given temperature 
will exert a different effect upon another body, which 
may require a greater or less degree of heat to pro- 
duce the same result ; and we find in practice that 
such is the case. 

The unit of heat, or the thermal unit employed, is 
the quantity of heat, as before stated, that will raise 
one pound of pure water l°Fah., or from 39° to 40° 
Fah. Latent heat means a quantity of heat which 
has disappeared, having been employed to produce 
some change other than elevation of temperature. 
By exactly reversing that change, the quantity of 
heat which had disappeared is reproduced. Sensible 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 193 

heat is that which is sensible to the touch or meas- 
urable by the thermometer. 

The mechanical equivalent of heat is the amount 
of work performed by the conversion of one unit of 
heat into work. This has been determined to be 
equal in amount to the force required to raise 172 
pounds one foot high, or one pound ?72 feet high. 

The mechanical theory of heat is now generally 
adopted. It is based on the assumption that heat 
and work are mutually convertible, and on this 
theory can be explained what becomes of the latent 
heat. 

When bodies expand, the molecules of which they 
are composed are pushed farther asunder by the 
oscillatory motion communicated to them. It is a 
matter of every-day observation, that heat, by ex- 
panding bodies, is a source of mechanical energy, 
and conversely, that mechanical energy expended 
either in compressing bodies or in friction becomes 
a source of heat. . This is termed the dynamic equiv- 
alent of heat. 

The molecular op atomic force of heat. — All mole- 
cules are under the influence of opposite forces, one 
tending to bring them together and the other to 
separate them. Molecular attraction is frequently 
termed cohesion, affinity, or adhesion. 

To find the actual heat in any body, we must sub- 
tract the energy expended by the action of the sub- 
stance on surrounding bodies. Heat may be com- 
17 N 



194 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

municated from a hot body to a cold one in threfl 
ways — by radiation, conduction, and circulation. 

The rate at which heat is transferred from metal 
to gases and from gases to metal has been found to 
be as the difference of temperature, but in practice 
the conditions are different from those in the experi- 
ment. Generally, in experiments, the conditions are 
such that the gases move under natural draught, 
which is frequently found to be impossible under 
ordinary conditions. 

As a variable amount of the heat evolved in the 
combustion of a body is absorbed in the work of 
effecting alterations in the physical conditions of the 
combustible elements necessary to their effective oxi- 
dation, it is impossible to estimate the absolute quan- 
tity of heat evolved by the combustion of a body ; 
yet the relative quantities of heat evolved by the 
combustion of different bodies, which may be util- 
ized, can be accurately determined. 

The medium heat of the globe is placed at 50° ; 
at the torrid zone, 15°; in moderate climates, 50°; 
near the Polar regions, 36° Fah. The extremes of 
natural heat are from 10° to 120° ; of artificial heat, 
91° to 36,000° Fah. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



195 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE OF FIRE, AND THE APPEARANCE 
OF DIFFERENT FUELS AT DIFFERENT DEGREES FAH., AND 
THAT IT IS NEARLY THE SAME FOR ALL KINDS OF COM- 
BUSTIBLES UNDER LIKE CONDITIONS. 



Appearance. 


Temp. Fah. 


Appearance. 


Temp. Fah. 


Red, just visible . . . 

" dull 

" cherry, dull . . 

full . . 

" " clear . 


997° 
1290 
1400 
1650 
1830 


Orange, deep 

clear .... 
White heat 

" bright .... 

" dazzling . . . 


2010° 
2190 
2370 
2550 
2730 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE FUSING TEMPERATURE OF DIFFERENT SUB- 
STANCES, IN DEGREES FAH. 



Substance. 


Temp. 
Fah. 


Metal. 


Temp. 
Fah. 


Metal. 


Temp. 
Fah. 


Tallow. . . . 
Spermaceti . 
Wax, white . 
Sulphur . . . 
Tin 


92° 
120 
154 
239 

455 


Bismuth . 
Lead .... 
Zinc .... 
Antimony 
Brass . . . 


518° 
630 
793 
810 
1650 


Silver, pure . . . 
Gold, coin .... 
Iron, cast, Medm. 

Steel 

Wrought iron . . 


1830° 
2156 
2010 
2550 
2910 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE RELATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT NON-CON- 
DUCTORS. 



Non-Conductor. 


Value. 


Non-Conductor. 


Value. 


Wool Felt 


1.000 
.832 
.715 
.680 
.676 
.632 
.553 


Loam, dry and open . . 

Slacked lime 

Gas-House Carbon .... 
Asbestos 


.550 
.480 
.470 
.363 
.345 
.277 
.136 


Mineral Wool No. 2 . . . 

Do. with tar 

Sawdust 

Mineral Wool No. 1 . . . 

Charcoal 

Pine Wood, across fibre 


Coke in lumps 

Air space, undivided . . 



Where, when, by whom, or under what circum- 
stances fire originated or was discovered, has never 
been satisfactorily explained. 



196 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE MELTING-POINTS OF DIFFERENT SOLIDS. 

Fah. 

Cast-iron 3479 

" " very fusible 2010 

" " white maximum 2010 

" " second melting 2190 

Gold 2590 

" very pure 2280 

" standard coin 2156 

Copper 2548 

Silver 1280 

" very pure 1830 

Brass 1869 

" . . 1650 

Antimony ......... 810 

Zinc 700 

« . 793 

Lead ! ! ! 1 I I ! [ 630 

Bismuth 493 

" 518 

Tin 426 



SHOWING THE MELTING-POINT OF AIXOYS. 

Tin 1, Lead 3 504 

" 1, " 1 466 

" 2, " 1 385 

" 3, " 1 367 

" 3, " 2 . 334 

" 4, " 1 372 

" 5, " 1 381 

" 2, " 0, Bismuth 1 334 

" 1, " 0, " 1 . . . . . . 286 

" I, " 1, " 4 201 

" 3, " 5, " 8 212 

" 3, " 5, " 8 210 

" 3, " 2, " 5 212 

" 4, " 1, " 5 246 

" 3, " 0, 1 392 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



197 




COMBUSTION. 

A certain amount of energy has necessarily to be 
expended in effecting 
the chemical combina- 
tion of the different in- 
gredients of which fuel 
is composed, the result 
of which is the amount 
of heat developed. The 
heat developed by the 
combination of oxygen 
with carbon and hydro- 
gen, is that employed 
in the mechanical arts. The chief constituents of 
fuel are carbon and hydrogen, and the union of 
oxygen with these elements is termed combustion. 

The temperature of combustion depends upon the 
rapidity with which the combination is effected, but 
the heat developed by combustion is independent of 
the time and depends only upon the caloric value of 
the element with which the oxygen combines. 

When the combustion is rapid, it is termed burn- 
ing ; when slow, it is termed decomposition. The 
atmosphere, from which source the oxygen is obtained 
to support combustion, is composed of oxygen and 
nitrogen in mechanical combination, in the propor- 
tion of 8 atoms of oxygen to 28 atoms of nitrogen ; 
or if chemical terms are used, one equivalent of 
17* 



198 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

oxygen to two of nitrogen. The nitrogen is inert, 
and neither assists nor retards combustion. 

When I pound of carbon unites with 2f pounds of 
oxygen, carbonic acid is formed, and combustion is 
said to be perfect or complete ; but when 1 pound 
of hydrogen combines with 8 pounds of oxygen, 
vapor of water is formed. Thus water, or steam, 
consists of one equivalent of hydrogen and one 
equivalent of oxygen. 

The total heat of the combustion of one pound of 
hydrogen, when burned to vapor of water, is 62.032 
thermal units ; and the total heat of combustion of 
one pound of carbon, when burned to carbonic oxide, 
is 4.400 thermal units. Thus the total heat of com- 
bustion of one pound of carbon burned to carbonic 
acid is 14.500 thermal units. 

Experiments have shown that, with natural draught 
of furnace, the theoretical quantity of air is insuffi- 
cient for complete combustion, and that twice this 
amount is really required. It has been shown that 
when two equivalents of oxygen unite with one 
equivalent of carbon, carbonic acid is the result; 
consequently, the quantity of air required from com- 
bustion can be determined with some degree of 
accuracy. 

Charcoal, coke, coal, wood, and peat are the fuels 
principally in use. Charcoal is obtained by elimi- 
nating the volatile matter from wood or peat by dis- 
tillation in a retort, or by partial combustion in a 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 199 

heap. A larger yield of carbon is obtained by the 
distillation process. According to Pecht, charcoal 
consists of carbon, 93 per cent., and non-combustible 
material, or ash, ? per cent. 

No substance in nature is combustible in itself, 
whatever the degree of heat to which it may be ex- 
posed ; and every substance can be ignited only when 
in the presence of, or in mechanical combination with, 
air, or its vital element, oxygen, because combustion 
is continuous ignition, and can only be caused by 
maintaining in the combustible mixture the heat 
necessary to ignite it. Strictly speaking, chemical 
combination, in every case, is accompanied by the 
production of heat, and every decomposition by a 
disappearance of heat equal in amount to that which 
is produced by the combination of the elements 
which are to be separated. 

When a complex chemical action takes place, in 
which various combinations and decompositions occur 
simultaneously, the heat obtained is the excess of 
the heat produced by the combinations above the 
heat which disappears. In consequence of decom- 
position, substances combine chemically in certain 
proportions only. To each of the substances known 
in chemistry a certain amount can be assigned, called 
its chemical equivalent. 

Chemical equivalents are sometimes atomic weights 
or atoms, in accordance with the hypothesis that they 
are proportionate to the weights of the supposed 



200 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

atoms of bodies, or smallest similar parts into which 
bodies are assumed to be divisible by known forces. 
The term atom is convenient from its shortness, and 
can be used to mean chemical equivalent. 

Spontaneous Combustion. — The chemical action 
known as spontaneous combustion is frequently the 
cause of fire. There can be no doubt that many 
fires, whose origin it has been difficult to explain, 
have arisen from this cause, and it is known that 
greasy or oily cotton, saw-dust, etc., if left long 
enough undisturbed, undergo a change, and finally 
ignite, setting fire to whatever inflammable material 
may be in their immediate vicinity. 

Spontaneous ignition has been known to take place 
in the cotton wipings or waste employed for wiping 
the oil, etc., from machinery ; and there is little 
doubt that many fires, for which no apparent cause 
could be assigned, have thus originated. Even the 
putrefaction of vegetable matter has been known to 
occasion the development of so much heat as to 
sometimes cause ignition. 

Galletly, who investigated the subject, found that 
cotton- waste soaked in boiled linseed oil, and wrung 
out, if exposed to a temperature of 170°, set up oxi- 
dation so rapidly as to cause actual combustion in 
105 minutes. It is important to note these facts, as 
they may be of great benefit to the owners and occu- 
pants of shops and factories. 

On this subject, however, there seems to be a wide 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 201 

difference of opinion, as, while it is claimed by some 
that steam-pipes will set fire to wood work, it is as- 
serted by others that no pressure of steam used for 
heating or manufacturing purposes is of a sufficiently 
high temperature to produce such results. How long 
it actually takes to effect this change in the wood has 
never yet been satisfactorily settled. Experiments 
are much needed to determine this important point. 

TABLE SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH DIFFERENT 
SUBSTANCES BECOME COMBUSTIBLE AND IGNITE WITHOUT 
THE INTERVENTION OF A SPARK OF EITHER ELECTRICITY 
OR FIRE. 

Substances. Fan. 

Phosphorus 140° 

Bisulphide of carbon 300° 

Fulminating powder 374° 

Fulminate of mercury 392° 

Equal parts of chlorate of potash and sulphur . 395° 

Sulphur 400° 

Gun-cotton 428° 

Mtro-glycerine 494° 

Rifle powder . . 550° 

Gunpowder, coarse 563° 

Picrate of mercury, lead or iron .... 565° 

Picrate powder for torpedoes 570° 

Picrate powder for muskets 576° 

Charcoal, the most inflammable willow used for gun- 
powder 580° 

Charcoal, made by distilling wood at 500° . . 660° 

Charcoal, made at 600° 700° 

Picrate powder for cannon 716° 

Very dry wood, pine . 800° 

Oak 900° 

Steam at 240 pounds pressure per square inch . . 403° 



202 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



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THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



203 



TABLE 



SHOWING THE THEORETIC VALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF 
AMERICAN COAL IN HEAT UNITS, POUNDS OF WATER EVAP- 
ORATED, AND PERCENTAGE OF WASTE. 





COAL. 


o 
l< 


Theoretical Value 


in Heat 


in 
Pounds 






a> 
Oh 


Units. 


of Water 
Evap. 


STATE. 


KIND OF COAL. 








Penn. 


Anthracite 


3.49 


14,199 


14.70 


<< 


" 


6.13 


13,535 


14.01 


« 


" 


2.90 


14,221 


14.72 


" 


Cannel 


15.02 


13,143 


13.60 


" 


Connellsville 


6.50 


13,368 


13.84 


u 


Semi-bi'nous 


10.77 


13,155 


13.62 


11 


Stone's Gas 


5.00 


14,021 


14.51 


(C 


Youghiogheny 


5.60 


14,265 


14.76 


" 


Brown 


9.50 


12,324 


12.75 


*7- 


Caking 


2.75 


14,391 


14.89 


Cannel 


2.00 


15,198 


16.76 


u 


u 


14.80 


13,360 


13.84 


" 


Lignite 


7.00 


9,326 


9.65 


111. 


Bureau Co. 


5.20 


13,025 


13.48 


it 


Mercer Co. 


5.60 


13,123 


13.58 


" 


Montauk 


5.50 


12,659 


13.10 


Ind. 


Block 


2.50 


13,588 


14.38 


" 


Caking 


5.66 


14,146 


14.64 


" 


Cannel 


6.00 


13,097 


13.56 


Md. 


Cumberland 


13.98 


12,226 


12.65 


Ark. 


Lignite 


5.00 


9,215 


9.54 


Col. 


" 


9.25 


13,562 


14.04 


" 


" 


4.50 


13,866 


14.35 


Texas 


it 


4.50 


12,962 


13.41 


Wash. 


Ter. " 


3.40 


11,551 


11.96 


Penn. 


Petroleum 




20,746 


21.47 



201 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

TABLE SHOWING THE COMBUSTIBLE AND NON-COMBUSTIBLE 
IN THE BEST QUALITY OP AMERICAN ANTHRACITE COALS. 

Carbon 86-76 per cent. 

Volatile matter . . . . . 4.98 " " 

Moisture 1.18 " " 

Non-combustible 6.97 " " 

Sulphur 11 " " 

table showing the constituents op cumberland coals 
(American). 

Carbon 73.72 per cent. 

Volatile matter 14.20 " " 

Sulphur 12 " " 

Moisture 1.56 " " 

Non-combustible . . . . . 10.40 " " 

TABLE SHOWING THE COMPOSITION OP BEST PENNSYLVANIA 
ANTHRACITE COAL. 

Carbon 72.00 per cent. 

Volatile matter 16.01 " " 

Sulphur 72 " " 

Moisture 1.14 " " 

Non-combustible 10.13 " " 

TABLE SHOWING THE BASIS OP VIRGINIA CAKING COAL. 

Carbon 58.01 per cent. 

Volatile matter 29-23 " " 

Sulphur 90 " " 

Moisture 1.36 " " 

Non-combustible 10.50 " " 

TABLE SHOWING THE COMBUSTIBLE VALUE OP OHIO COALS. 

Carbon 56.62 per cent 

Volatile matter 35.03 " " 

Moisture . 3.19 " " 

Non-combustible 5.16 " 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 205 

TABLE DEDUCED PROM AN ANALYSIS OF INDIANA COALS. 

Carbon 51.20 per cent. 

Volatile matter 42-79 " " 

Non-combustible 6.01 " " 

TABLE SHOWING THE INGREDIENTS IN NEWCASTLE COAL 
(ENGLISH). 

Carbon 56.99 per cent. 

Volatile matter 35.59 " " 

Sulphur 23 " " 

Moisture 1.79 " " 

Non-combustible 5.40 " " 

TABLE SHOWING THE HEATING POWER OF COKE AS FUEL. 

Carbon 85.00 per cent. 

Non-combustible 15.00 " " 

TABLE SHOWING THE CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS OF WOOD. 

Carbon 50.00 per cent. 

Oxygen 42.00 " " 

Hydrogen 5.25 " " 

Non-combustible 2.75 " " 

TABLE SHOWING THE VEGETABLE COMPOSITION OF PEAT. 

Carbon 58.00 per cent. 

Hydrogen 6.00 " " 

Oxygen 31.00 " " 

Non-combustible 5.00 " " 

TABLE SHOWING THE CARBON, VOLATILE, SULPHUR, ETC.,, 
IN PITTSBURGH COAL. 

Carbon 54.93 per cent.. 

Volatile matter 36.60 " " 

Moisture 1.40 " " 

Non-combustible 7.07 " " 

1*8 



206 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE SHOWING THE VALUE OF LIGNITE, AS FUEL. 

Carbon 39.00 per cent. 

Oxygen 10.00 " " 

Hydrogen 2.50 " " 

Non-combustible . . ' . . . 48.50 " ", 
TABLE 

SHOWING THE COMPOSITION OF COMBUSTIBLES IN COAL, COKE, 
WOOD, AND PEAT, ETC. 



Constituents. 


"3 

8 


o 
O 


Wood. 


Peat. 


(2 


'gGD 

o 


i 

o 


>» 





Carbon .... 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen .... 

Nitrogen and Sulphur 

Water .... 

Ashes .... 


.812 
.048 
.054 
.031 

'.055 


.850 

Viso 


.510 
.053 
.417 

'.020 


.408 
.042 
.334 

'.200 
.016 


.930 
'.070 


.580 
.060 
.310 

'.'650 


.464 
.048 

.248 

'.200 
.040 


Total 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE VALUE OF FLUID FUELS. 



Constituents. 


03 

! 


3 6 
HA 



| 

3 


O 

ffl 
O 


If 


| 

"3 


i 

8 

0) 

PQ 


Carbon .... 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen .... 


.850 
.150 


.884 
.116 


.5198 
.1370 
.3432 


.7721 
.1336 
.0943 


.6531 
.1333 
.2136 


.790 
.117 
.093 


.816 
.139 
.045 


Total 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 207 

FUEL. 

The term fuel may be applied to any substance 
which gives out heat when subjected to the process 
of combustion. It includes anthracite and bituminous 
coals, peat, wood, lignite, etc., and the value of any 
fuel may be estimated by the number of heat units 
which its combustion will develop — a heat unit, as 
shown under the head of standard units, in another 
part of this work, being the amount of heat required 
to raise one pound of water one degree Fah. The 
fuel used in generating steam is composed of carbon, 
hydrogen, and ash, with sometimes small quanti- 
ties of other substances not materially affecting its 
value. 

The air required for complete combustion, the 
temperature with different proportions of air, the 
theoretical value, and the highest attainable value 
under a steam-boiler, assuming that the gases pass 
off at 320°, the temperature of steam at 15 pounds 
pressure would be 311.2°, and the incoming chimney 
draught twice 60° ; with a blast draught it would 
require twice that amount of air for complete com- 
bustion. 

Slack, or the screenings of either anthracite or 
bituminous coal, when properly mixed and burned 
with a blower on grates adapted for it, develops 
nearly as much heat as the best specimen of either 
the coals above mentioned, but its percentage of loss 



208 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

is nearly twice that of broken nut, egg, lump, or 
stove coal. Facts, experiment, and investigation 
have shown that anthracite and bituminous coals 
and lignite belong to the vegetable kingdom, and 
that wood consists chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, and 

._ oxygen. By a process of natural evolution, the 
wood suffers a loss of each of these elements, more 
especially of the hydrogen and oxygen. Lignite 
sustains a further loss of nearly all its oxygen, more 
than half its hydrogen, and a large percentage of 
carbon. When bituminous coal is the result, this 
undergoes another change, and loses a portion of its 
carbon, nearly all of its hydrogen and oxygen, and 
results in the formation of anthracite coal. 

It is estimated that the annual production of coal 
in the world amounts to over 300,000,000 tons, one- 
half of which, or 150,000,000 tons at least, is used 
for steaming purposes, which, at an average of $2.50 
per ton, the lowest estimate that can be placed on it, 
will amount to $375,000,000. It must be observed 
that a very small saving in that amount would add 
materially to the wealth of the world. The com- 
mercial value of the coal yield of the world is more 

, than that of all mineral products, including refractory 
clays and phosphates. 

The commercial standards for the sale of differ- 
ent kinds of fuels may be enumerated as follows: 
Anthracite coal is purchased or sold by the ton, the 
gross ton being 2240 pounds, the net 2000 pounds. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 20? 

Bituminous coal, coke, and lignite are sold by the 
bushel. Wood and peat are sold by the cord. 
Burgy, slack, and cullum, which are the waste of 
coal, are sold by the load. 

The terms which designate the different sizes of 
coal used for steam-boilers, are lump, broken, large 
egg, small egg, large stove, small stove, nut, chest- 
nut, pea, and dust. 

It is customary to mix pea and dust, also bitu- 
minous coal and dust, and burn them with an artifi- 
cial draught created by a blower. Dust is frequently 
burned by mixing it with shavings, tan-bark, or 
other combustible substances. 

Different attempts have been made to utilize the 
waste resulting from the preparations of coal, but so 
far without satisfactory results. This is to be re- 
gretted, as not more than 60 per cent, of all the coal 
mined is marketable, 40 per cent, being lost in the 
different processes of preparation. 

Numerous attempts have been made, in this coun- 
try and Europe, to employ petroleum as fuel for the 
generation of steam, and, while it has been frequently 
announced that such experiments have been success- 
ful, the question still remains open. It would be 
interesting to know why the use of petroleum fuel 
has been abandoned, while such flattering pros- 
pects were offered at one time, but it seems the 
result of the experiments tried with it has not been 
collected. 

18* O 



210 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

WOOD. 

It is asserted that the annual quantity of wood con- 
sumed in the world amounts to over 50,000,000 cords, 
which, at $2 per cord, would be worth $100,000,000; 
^besides, the chips, shavings, and sawdust which are 
consumed is not included in this estimate, but ha& 
been calculated to equal 10,000,000 cords of wood. 
This shows that expenditure for wood alone as a fuel 
is equal to $120,000,000. 

The woods most generally used in the mechanical 
arts are oak of different varieties, viz., white, black, 
live, red, swamp, etc.; pine of different species, 
white, yellow, pitch, resin, etc.; maple — hard, soft, 
bird's-eye, curled, etc.; spruce, hickory, ash, mahog- 
any, baywood, rosewood, boxwood, lignuin-vitae, 
walnut, ebony, sandal, cocoa, tulip, granadilla, ama- 
ranth, cedar, lancewood, dogwood, satin wood, snake« 
wood, violet, holly, birch, beech, hornbeam, hemlock, 
tamarack, hacmatac, white wood, teak, logwood, Cot- 
tonwood, willow, basswood, elm, button wood, cherry, 
chestnut, and redwood. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF 
WOOD AS FUEL. 



Kind of Wood. 




Kind of Wood. 




Hickory, shell-bark 

" red heart 

White oak .... 

lied oak 


4.469 
3.705 
3.821 
3.254 


Southern pine . . 
Virginia " . . 

Spruce 

New Jersey pine . 
Yellow " 
White 


3.375 

2.680 
2.325 
2.137 
1.904 
1.868 


Beach 


3.126 


Hard maple . . . 


2.878 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 211 

STEAM. 

Steam is an elastic vapor, into which water is 
converted by application of heat. Its most impor- 
tant property is due to its elastic pressure, and arises 
from the absence of cohesion in the particles of 
water from which it is generated, and the mutual re- 
pulsion which gives them a tendency to separate 
from the mass of fluid in which they are contained. 
The pressure of steam is uniformly diffused over 
the entire surface of the vessel in which it is gener- 
ated, and it is to this quality that all mechanical 
power of steam is due, because, when any gas or 
vapor is contained in a close vessel, or boiler, the 
inner surface of the boiler will sustain a pressure 
equal to the pounds per square inch and the elastic- 
ity of the vapor or the gas which it contains. 

Steam cannot mix with air while its pressure ex- 
ceeds that of the atmosphere; and this property 
makes the condition of a body dependent on its 
temperature, and explains the condensing property 
of steam. When the pressure of steam in the cyl- 
inder equals 15 pounds to the square inch, all the air 
is expelled ; then, by immersing the cylinder in cold 
water, as shown on page 136, under the head of 
vacuum, the steam assumes the conditions produced 
by the reduction of its temperature, and becomes 
water. 

The latent or concealed heat of steam is one of 



Zl2 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

its most noteworthy qualities. Though showing no 
effect on the thermometer, it may be as easily known 
as the sensible or perceptible heat. 

To demonstrate this property of steam, 5| pounds 
of water, at 32° Fah., may be placed in an open 
vessel, with a pipe extending from the steam-boiler 
nearly to its bottom, and on turning on the steam 
it will be discovered that the water in the vessel 
when raised to the boiling-point, 212° Fah., will 
weigh 6-J pounds. 

Now this addition of one pound to the weight of 
the water resulted from the condensation of the 
steam necessary to raise 5^ pounds from 32° to 212° 
Fah. If steam is generated from water at a tem- 
perature which gives it the same pressure as the 
atmosphere, an additional temperature of 38° will 
give it the pressure of two atmospheres, and a still 
further addition of 42° gives it the tension of four 
atmospheres. 

A noticeable result attending the formation of 
steam is that, when an engine is in operation and 
working off a proper supply of steam, the water- 
level in the boiler artificially rises, showing by the 
gauge-cocks a greater supply than that which really 
exists. Temperature and pressure must in all cases 
be constant factors, consequently water at 212° Fah. 
must be under the pressure of steam due to that 
temperature, which is one atmosphere, or 15 pounds 
to the square inch. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 213 

If the normal pressure on the surface of water 
from which steam is generated is removed without 
a corresponding reduction in the temperature, a vio- 
lent ebullition of the water is the immediate result, 
which is due to a disturbance, or a want of balance, 
in the relations which should be maintained between 
temperature and pressure. 

As pressure of steam increases, the sensible heat 
is augmented and the latent heat diminished, and 
vice versa, but the sum of either is always a con- 
stant quantity, and one can only be increased at the 
expense of the other. It has been asserted that by 
mere mechanical compression steam may be con- 
verted into water. This is an error, since steam, in 
whatever state it may exist, must possess at least 
212° of heat, and as this quantity of heat is suffi- 
cient to maintain it in the form of vapor under 
whatever pressure it may be placed, no compression 
or increase of pressure can diminish the actual 
quantity of heat contained in the steam. 

If steam, under mechanical pressure, be reduced 
to diminished volume, it will undergo an increase 
of temperature which will exceed the diminution 
of volume ; in fact, any change of volume which 
it undergoes will be attended with a change of 
temperature and pressure ; but it will be noticed 
that when the steam has undergone a change of 
volume, it will assume exactly the pressure and 
temperature which it would have in the same vol- 
ume, if it were immediately evolved from water 



214 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Water, while passing into steam, suffers a great 
enlargement of volume, while steam, on the other 
hand, in being converted into water, undergoes a I 
corresponding diminution of volume. It has been 
shown that a cubic inch of water evaporated at 
the temperature of 212° Fah. swells into 1700 
cubic inches of steam; it follows, therefore, that 
if a closed vessel, containing 1700 cubic inches of 
steam, be exposed to cold sufficient to take from 
the steam all its latent heat, the steam will be 
reconverted into water, will shrink into its original 
dimensions, and will leave the remainder of the 
vessel a vacuum. 

No accurate formula has ever been demonstrated 
by which to express the relation between the tem- 
perature and pressure of steam, or to determine the 
temperature due to augment the volume which 
results when water expands by evaporation; but 
steam, having been formed from water by evapora- 
tion, may, like all other substances, receive an ac- 
cession of heat from any external source, and its 
temperature may therefore be elevated. 

Steam, at atmospheric pressure, requires 1700 
times the volume from which it was raised ; a cubic 
foot of water weighs 62 I pounds ; a cubic foot of 
steam of atmospheric pressure weighs about .038 
pound. In order to exert a pressure by its mere 
dead weight of 14.7 pounds per square inch, such 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 215 

steam of uniform density would have to stand at 
a height of 10j miles. 

If a pound of steam has a pressure of 120 pounds 
above atmosphere, it is equal to a pound of water 
heated at 1681° above the absolute zero of a per- 
fect gas thermometer, 1220° above Fah. zero, 1188° 
above the freezing-point, or 1118° above the sensible 
pressure of steam of one pound absolute pressure 
per square inch. 

Steam which is employed for mechanical pur- 
poses, as it arises from the water from which it is 
generated, is termed saturated steam ; while steam 
which is subjected to extra heat outside of the 
vessel in which it is formed, is called superheated 
or dry steam. 

ECONOMY OF WORKING STEAM EXPANSIVELY. 

Expansion is the most extraordinary property of 
steam. The merit of its discovery is due to Horn- 
blower, who, in 1T81, obtained a patent for the 
invention. The principle of expanding the steam 
in the condensing-engine is the same as in the 
non-condensing engine, with this exception, that 
the steam which exhausts undue atmospheric press- 
ure cannot expand below 15 pounds per square 
inch, because the exhaust is open to the pressure 
of the surrounding atmosphere. 

The resistance of the atmosphere, which is nearly 



216 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

It pounds per square inch, must be added to the 
steam pressure when making calculations. For 
instance, if steam at 20 pounds pressure above 
atmosphere is admitted to the cylinder of the 
steam-engine and cut-off at one-fourth stroke, it 
would show a terminal pressure of 8 i pounds. 

If steam at 45 pounds per square inch above 
atmosphere is admitted to the cylinder and cut-off 
at one-fourth stroke, the average pressure through- 
out will be, allowing 1 pound for friction and back 
pressure to force out the steam in the cylinder, 19| 
pounds. Thus : 45 pounds of steam cut-off at one- 
fourth the stroke, with 15 pounds added, make 60 
pounds. 

Thirty pounds of steam per square inch cut-off, at 
one-third the stroke, with the atmosphere added, 15 
pounds, equal 45, and will give an average pressure 
of 31J pounds for the whole length of the stroke. 
From the above it will be seen that, as it requires 
a certain quantity of fuel to raise a certain volume 
of steam, if that steam is allowed to escape into 
the atmosphere, or condense without expansion, the 
benefit which should be derived from the consump- 
tion of fuel will be lost to a certain extent. 

If any further proof was needed to show the econ- 
omy of working steam expansively, it might be as- 
serted, without fear of contradiction, that steam at 
t>5 pounds pressure per square inch, if cut off in the 
tyiinder and expanded, will perform seven times the 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 217 

amount of work that steam at 25 pounds pressure to 
the square inch would if allowed to follow the piston 
seven-eighths of the stroke. No intelligent me- 
chanic or manufacturer of steam-engines will arrange 
the valves of an engine at the present time without 
taking into consideration the benefits to be derived 
from working steam expansively. Of course, steam 
is sometimes worked whole stroke, but only to meet 
special requirements. 

It will be seen from the above, that if steam at 25 
pounds pressure was cut off at one-fourth stroke, the 
average pressure for the whole length of the stroke 
would be 15 pounds per square inch; or, if the 
pressure was 80 pounds per square inch, and the cut- 
off was at one-fourth stroke, the average pressure for 
the whole length of stroke would be 4?f pounds. 
This table must be used in estimating the horse- 
power of steam-engines. (See formulae on page 220.) 

If steam be supplied to the cylinder of an engine 
for the full length of the stroke, the average pressure 
will be as the pressure per square inch upon the pis- 
ton ; but if the steam be cut off at half stroke — sup- 
pose the pressure to be 65 pounds per inch when 
the pressure of the atmosphere is added — there will 
be a mean equivalent or average pressure throughout 
the stroke of 55 pounds per square inch. 

From the foregoing it would appear evident that 
the expansive property of steam is strictly mechani- 
cal, and is a property common to all fluids, air, gas, 
19 



218 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

etc. It simply consists in this, that vapor, of a given 
elastic force, will expand to certain limits, and during 
the process of expansion will act on opposing bodies 
with a force gradually decreasing, causing a diminu- 
tion of elastic power in ratio inverse to the increase 
of volume, until it has reached the limits of its pow- 
er, or is counterbalanced by the resistance of the 
surrounding atmosphere. 

If the load on a steam-engine is such as to allow 
the steam to be cut off early, and to expand down to 
its most available limits in the cylinder, then the 
best economy will be realized, because the highest 
boiler pressure had been used at admission, and re- 
duced down to the lowest possible pressure at release 
or exhaust. 

In the non -condensing engine, the steam, after 
acting on the piston, escapes into the open air; 
therefore, the pressure of the outgoing steam must 
exceed atmospheric pressure, or 14. t to the square 
inch. Thus, if steam at 45 lbs. average pressure above 
vacuum be admitted to the piston of a high-pressure 
engine, it will exert a force equal to its pressure ; but 
14.7 lbs. per square inch of that pressure will not be 
converted into work, as it will be lost in overcoming 
the pressure of the atmosphere. 

Rule. — For Finding the Amount of Benefit to be 
Derived from Working Steam Expansively. — Divide 
the length of a stroke by the distance the steam fol- 
lows the piston before being cut off ; then find in the 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



219 



annexed table the hyperbolic logarithm that will cor- 
respond nearest to the quotient, to which add 1, the 
sum of which will show the ratio of gain. 

TABLE 

OF HYPEEBOLIC LOGARITHMS TO BE USED IN CONNECTION 
WITH THE ABOVE RULE. 



No. 


Logarithm. 


No. 


Logarithm. 


No. 


Logarithm. 


1.25 


.22314 


5. 


1.60943 


9. 


2.19722 


1.5 


.40546 


5.25 


1.65822 


9.5 


2.25129 


1.75 


.55961 


5.5 


1.70474 


10. 


2.30258 


2. 


.69314 


5.75 


1.74919 


11. 


2.39789 


2.25 


.81093 


6. 


1.79175 


12. 


2.48490 


2.5 


.91629 


6.25 


1.83258 


13. 


2.56494 


2.75 


1.01160 


6.5 


1.87180 


14. 


2.63905 


3. 


1.09861 


6.75 


1.90954 


15. 


2.70805 


3.25 


1.17865 


7. 


1.94591 


16. 


2.77258 


3.5 


1.25276 


7.25 


1.98100 


17. 


2.83321 


3.75 


1.32175 


7.5 


2.01490 


18. 


2.89037 


4. 


1.38629 


7.75 


2.04769 


19. 


2.94443 


4.25 


1.44691 


8. 


2.07944 


20. 


2.99573 


4.5 


1.50507 


8.5 


2.14006 


21. 


3.04452 


4.75 


1.55814 






22. 


3.09104 




A MISSISSIPPI STEAMER. 



220 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK, 





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THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



221 



Rule. — For Finding the Average Pressure in 
Steam- Cylinders. — Divide the length of the stroke 
by the distance the steam follows the piston before 
being cut off; the quotient will show the measure 
of expansion. Then find in the following table, in 
the expansion column, the number corresponding to 
this, which, if multiplied by the number opposite, 
will give the average pressure. 

TABLE 

OP MULTIPLIERS BY WHICH TO FIND THE AVERAGE PRESSURE 
OF STEAM IN THE CYLINDERS OF STEAM-ENGINES, FOR 
ANY POINT OF CUT-OFF. 



Expan- 
sion. 


Multiplier. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Multiplier. 


Expan- 
sion. 


Multiplier. 


1.0 


1.000 


3.4 


.654 


5.8 


.479 


1.1 


.995 


3.5 


.644 


5.9 


.474 


1.2 


.985 


3.6 


.634 


6. 


.470 


1.3 


.971 


3.7 


.624 


6.1 


.466 


1.4 


.955 


3.8 


.615 


«.2 


.462 


1.5 


.937. 


3.9 


.605 


6.3 


.458 


1.6 


.919 


4. 


.597 


6.4 


.454 


1.7 


.900 


4.1 


.588 


6.5 


.450 


1.8 


.882 


4.2 


.580 


6.6 


.446 


1.9 


.864 


4.3 


.572 


6.7 


.442 


2. 


.847 


4.4 


.564 


6.8 


.438 


2.1 


.830 


4.5 


.556 


6.9 


.434 


2.2 


.813 


4.6 


.549 


7. 


.430 


2.3 


.797 


4.7 


.542 


7.1 


.427 


2.4 


.781 


4.8 


.535 


7.2 


.423 


2.5 


.766 


4.9 


.528 


7.3 


.420 


2.6 


.752 


5. 


.522 


7.4 


.417 


2.7 


.738 


5.1 


.516 


7.5 


.414 


2.8 


.725 


5.2 


.510 


7.6 


.411 


29 


.712 


5.3 


.504 


7.7 


.408 


3. 


.700 


5.4 


.499' 


7.8 


.405 



19* 



222 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

PROPERTIES OP SATURATED STEAM. 

Ice is liquefied, and becomes water at 32° Pah. ; 
above this point water increases in temperature up 
to the steaming point, nearly at the rate of 1° for 
each unit of heat added per pound of water. The 
steaming point, 212° at atmospheric pressure, rises 
as the superimposed pressure increases. For each 
unit of heat added above the steaming point, a por- 
tion of the water is converted into steam, having the 
same temperature and the same pressure as that at 
which it is evaporated. The heat so absorbed is 
called " latent heat." 

The amount of heat rendered latent by each pound 
of water in becoming steam, varies at different press- 
ures, decreasing as the pressure increases. This 
latent heat, added to the suitable heat (or thermo- 
metric temperature), constitutes "total heat ;" the 
" total heat " being greater as the pressure increases, 
it will take more heat, and consequently more fuel, 
to make a pound of steam the higher the pressure. 

The tables on pages 255, 256 give the properties 
of steam, at different pressures, from 1 pound to 400 
pounds, "total pressure " above vacuum. The gauge 
pressure is about 15 pounds less than the total press- 
ure, so that, in using this table, 15 must be added 
to the pressure as given by the steam-gauge. The 
column of temperatures gives the thermometric tem- 
perature of steam and boiling-point at each pressure. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 223 

The "factor of equivalent evaporation" shows the 
proportionate cost, in heat or fuel, of producing steam 
at the given pressure, as compared with atmospheric 
pressure. 

To ascertain the equivalent evaporation at any 
pressure, multiply the given evaporation by the factor 
of its pressure, and divide the product by the factor 
of the desired pressure. Each degree of difference 
in temperature of feed-water makes a difference of 
.00104 in the amount of evaporation. Hence, to 
ascertain the equivalent evaporation from any other 
temperature than 212°, add to the factor given as 
many times .00104 as the temperature of feed-water 
is degrees below 212°. 

CALORIC. 

Caloric is generally treated as if it was a material 
substance, but, like light and electricity, its true 
nature has hitherto not been determined. The term 
caloric means every conceivable existence of tem- 
perature. This fact has led to the division of bodies 
into conductors and non-conductors of caloric ; the 
former include such bodies as metals, which allow 
caloric to pass freely through them, and the latter 
comprise those which do not give an easy passage 
through them, such as stones, glass, wood, char- 
coal, etc. 

When heated bodies are exposed to the air, they 



224 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

lose portions of their heat by projections in right 
lines into space from all parts of their surface. 
Radiation is affected by the nature of the surface of 
the body ; thus black and rough surfaces radiate and 
absorb more heat than light and polished surfaces. 
Bodies which radiate heat best absorb it best. 

The reflection of caloric differs from radiation, as 
the caloric is in this case reflected from the surface 
without entering the substance of the body ; hence 
the body which radiates, and consequently absorbs 
most caloric, reflects the least, and vice verm. Sen- 
sible caloric is free and unconfined, passing from one 
substance to another, affecting the senses in its pas- 
sage, determining the height of the thermometer, 
and giving rise to all the results which are attributed 
to this active principle. Caloric is either free and 
sensible, or latent or insensible, and is the cause of 
fluidity or solidity ; as, if heat is applied to ice, it 
becomes fluid, if heat is extracted, it resumes its solid 
form. Evaporation produces cold, because caloric 
must be absorbed in the formation of vapor (a large 
quantity of it passing from a sensible to a latent 
state), the capacity for heat of the vapor formed 
being greater than that of the fluid from which it 
proceeds. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



225 




226 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

STEAM-BOILERS. 

Steam-boilers may be divided into nine different 
classes, viz., flue, plain cylinder, tubular, double-deck, 
locomotive, fire-box or marine, fire-tube, water-tube, 
tubulous, and sectional, which in turn may be divided 
into two, viz., those which are externally and those 
which are internally fired. They were all designed 
to meet some special requirement, and they in turn 
have accomplished some apparent purpose. As might 
be expected, they all have their advantages and dis- 
advantages. 

All boilers, for whatever object designed or purpose 
employed, are divided into three distinct parts, whose 
functions are independent of each other — fire-surface, 
water-space, and steam-room. The fire-space furnace, 
or combustion chamber, is the part in which the pro- 
ducts of combustion are liberated ; the water-space 
is the part occupied by the water ; while the steam- 
room is the reservoir which supplies the necessary 
quantity of steam to the engine. 

All steam-boilers, of whatever design, or for what- 
ever purpose employed, are either externally or in- 
ternally fired. Locomotive, marine, and portable 
boilers are internally fired, because the fuel is con- 
sumed in an iron furnace surrounded with a water- 
leg ; while the cylinder flue, double-deck, tubulous, 
and sectional are externally fired, and the fuel is 
consumed in a furnace inclosed in fire-brick walls. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 22? 

The plain cylinder, one of the oldest types of 
modern steam-boilers, possessed the merit of being 
light, cheap, easy to clean and repair, was safer, and 
required less attention than any other design ; but 
it had the disadvantage of being wasteful of fuel, 
,as a great part of the heat of combustion passed 
into the chimney that would have been otherwise 
absorbed and transmitted to the water. It was ob- 
jectionable on account of its extreme length, where 
economy of space was an object. The plain cylin- 
der boiler is fast disappearing, its use at the present 
time being confined to blast-furnaces, bloomeries, 
etc., where steam is generated from the escaping 
gases from the furnaces. 

The flue boiler possessed many advantages over 
the cylinder, as it occupied less space, and was a 
good steamer on account of its great amount of 
heating surface; but it had the disadvantage of 
being heavy, expensive, difficult to clean or repair, 
and dangerous on account of the liability of the 
flues to collapse. It is still quite extensively used 
in Western manufacturing establishments and on 
Western waters, but in the Eastern or Middle 
States the tubular has almost entirely superseded it. 

The tubular boiler, like the high-pressure auto- 
matic cut-off engines, is an American invention, 
and is fast taking the place of all other designs, 
on account of the limited space which it occupies, 
its great efficiency as a steamer, and from the fact 



228 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



that the tubes are capable of resisting, with safety, 
almost any pressure that may be exerted on their 
external surface. Its disadvantages are that it is 
difficult to clean and almost impossible to repair, 
as the tubes have to be frequently removed, for 
the purpose of cleaning off the incrustation which 
becomes attached to them. This is quite an ex- 
pensive operation, nevertheless it always pays on 
account of the saving in fuel effected. 




THE HARRISON SECTIONAL STEAM-BOILER. 

The double-deck, which is an embodiment of the 
cylinder and tubular, embodies many good points. 
It consists of a tubular boiler with a plain cylinder 
on the top, which are connected by necks riveted 
to each other. The tubes in the lower boiler are 
submerged in water, while the upper boiler is the 
steam-room ; the draught passes under the tubular 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 229 

boiler through the tubes, and returns between the 
two boilers. It cannot be said to possess any 
advantages over the above-named designs, as it is 
heavy, expensive, and the steam-room is farther 
from the fire. This has a tendency to induce con- 
densation and a waste of fuel. 

The upright, or Corliss tubular, shown on page 
60, is in very general use, that design of boiler 
being desirable where economy of space is an object. 
In large manufacturing establishments they are gen- 
erally placed in nests, with a plain cylinder in the 
centre, surrounded by five, six, or seven tabulars on 
the outside, which are inclosed in a wrought-iron 
shell and surrounded with brick. 

Such boilers are very efficient when new and 
clean, but, where muddy water is used, the crown- 
sheets are liable to burn out, and the water-legs, on 
which they rest, rot away by dampness and the 
action of the lime on the mortar with which the 
foundations are made. They are very difficult and 
expensive to repair. The locomotive boiler possesses 
many advantages in point of strength, efficiency, and 
evaporative capacity over any other design, and a 
modification of it, called the dog-house, is very ex- 
tensively used on small tug-boats and yachts — in 
fact, all the boilers used on tugs or yachts are either 
upright, locomotive, or dog-house. The only draw- 
back to this latter design is, that the loss of heat by 
radiation is very great, as it has no water-leg in front. 
20 



230 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Tubulous. — The tubulous boilers, shown on page 
225, are very efficient, safe, and economical, and 
have maintained a reputation equal to any other 
design in point of efficiency, durability, safety, and 
economy for the past ten years, and have received 
honorable mention at the Centennial Exposition, 
held at Philadelphia in 1816, for their excellent 
performances. 

The most necessary and important features to be 
considered in the design of a boiler or steam gener- 
ator, may be partly enumerated as follows: They 
must be simple in design, easy of access for clean- 
ing or repairs, have a good circulation for the 
water, abundant heating surface, unobstructed pas- 
sages between the steam and water room, have a 
large capacity, and be well proportioned for the 
work to be performed. They should also be made 
of the best material and in the best possible man- 
ner, and have a wide margin of safety over any 
pressure to which it might be subjected. In ordi- 
nary use, it should be a quick steamer and furnish 
dry steam, and embody sufficient steam room to 
prevent the possibility of wire-drawing, pruning, 
or foaming. Its parts should be so arranged as to 
be capable of absorbing the greatest amount of the 
heat resulting from the products of combination. 

Boiler tests are very desirable and interesting, 
inasmuch as they show what has been done, what 
is doing now, and what may be expected in the 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 231 

future ; but, like experiments tried in a laboratory, 
they never produce results similar to those that 
take place in the factory. This is impossible to do 
under the carefully conducted experiments, because 
the conditions are entirely different from those which 
exist in shops or factories. 

The horse-power of steam-boilers. — The term 
horse-power of a steam-boiler can have no definite 
meaning, because the volume of steam that any 
boiler will generate is simply the dynamic effect 
of the fuel consumed. As boilers are necessary to 
supply engines of a given capacity, as a matter of 
convenience we must have some standard propor- 
tion, or formula, by which to be guided in the 
design of the boiler or generator. 

In the early days of the steam-engine, one cubic 
foot of water evaporated per hour from 212° Fah. 
Was considered equal to one horse-power. At the 
present time less than one-third of that amount 
will suffice, which may be thus illustrated: The 
constant number 200 divided by the square root 
of the pressure, 64 pounds per square inch, is equal 
to 25 pounds of water per horse-power per hour, 
and for the most economical class of engines, with 
a working pressure of 100 pounds per square inch, 
would require an evaporation of 20 pounds of 
water per horse-power per hour, or less than one- 
third of what it required in " Watt's " time. 

When we come to consider the evaporative ca« 



232 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




This cut represents the McKee & Rankin flue-boiler, 
showing the smoke-stack, dome, flues, man-hole, plate, 
bolt and brace ; c, c, c, c, c, show the curvilinear seams, 
single-riveted, while the longitudiual seams shown at d, 
d, are double-riveted, which is due to the fact that there 
is twice as much strain on the latter as on the former. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 233 

parity of any steam-boiler many features must be ex- 
amined ; first, the design of the boiler ; second, the 
quality of material ; third, the draught ; fourth, the 
attendance; fifth, the condition of the boiler as to 
cleanliness, etc. 

STEAM-BOILER PERFORMANCES. 

The coal required to develop a horse-power de- 
pends on the design, circulation, conducting powers 
of the boiler, and its management. A pound of coal 
will evaporate 9 pounds of water, and that the engine 
required 30 pounds of water per hour per horse- 
power, there would be an expenditure of fuel equal 
to 3.33 pounds per horse-power per hour. In gen- 
eral practice, however, such economy is rarely at- 
tained, but it has been exceeded in some special cases. 

The equivalent evaporation of boilers in general 
at the same temperature of feed-water and furnace, 
with anthracite coal, is about 8 pounds of water per 
pound of coal per hour. The amount of water evap- 
orated per pound of coal is universally conceded to 
be the proper measure of the efficiency of the boiler, 
but, in order to compare one boiler with another, 
they should have equally good coal, be fed with 
water at the same temperature, and furnish steam 
at the same pressure. 

As this is impracticable in making tests, a stand- 
ard has been accepted, to which all tests should be 
brought for comparison. This is called the equiv- 
20* 



234 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

alent evaporation from and at 212° per pound of 
combustible ; that is, what the evaporation would 
have been if the coal had been without ash, the feed* 
water at boiling-point, and the steam delivered at 
atmospheric pressure. 

When boilers are to be laid up for an indefinite 
time, it is always best to blow out the boiler, and 
dry it thoroughly by burning a few shavings, or a 
bundle of straw, in the furnace ; then allow the flame 
to pass through the tubes, after which a moderate 
quantity of sal soda should be introduced, say five 
pounds to an ordinary sized boiler ; then fill the boiler 
with water up to the safety-valve. This treatment 
will preserve it from corrosion, etc. 

When the water used in steam-boilers is impreg- 
nated with mineral salts, the lips and seats of the 
man-hole and hand-hole plates should receive a coat- 
ing of tallow and plumbago, to prevent pitting. 

Sectional boilers, for which so much was claimed 
and from which so much was expected a few years 
ago, seem to have almost entirely disappeared. The 
" Weigan," " Phlegger," " Moorehouse," and others, 
are rarely met with in steam-using establishments. 
Though being termed safety-boilers by their invent- 
ors, they prove to be just the reverse. The terrible 
accidents at " Trott & Gordon's" and " Hoopes & 
Townsend's," Philadelphia, convinced steam-users 
that such boilers were not only unsafe, but expensive 
and inefficient. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 235 

In the general design and arrangement of such 
boilers, flat cast-iron surfaces were embraced, which 
is an element of danger. Besides, the connection of 
heavy masses of cast-iron with wrought-iron tubes 
prevented the possibility of equal expansion and 
contraction, which is a very desirable feature in a 
steam generator, as far as regards safety. The 
" Harrison " sectional boiler, illustrated on page 228, 
seems to hold its own, and, though it may not be 
capable of withstanding heavy firing and great forc- 
ing, it is, nevertheless, efficient and safe, for the pur- 
pose of heating buildings with steam. It possesses 
many features. 

CHIMNEYS. 

The object of a chimney is to produce a draught, 
increase combustion, and carry off the 
smoke and obnoxious gases. But the 
quantity of the latter discharged into 
the atmosphere depends materially on 
the size of the chimney, velocity of the 
draught, and flow and density of the 
gases. Height and area are the only con- 
ditions to be considered in the propor- 
tion of chimneys ; nevertheless, design 
and shape have their influence. 

As the density of gas decreases as 
the temperature increases, while the 
velocity increases with a given height, 




236 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OAVN BOOK. 

only as the square root of the density, it follows 
that there is a temperature at which the weight of 
gas delivered is a maximum, which is about 550° 
above the surrounding air, all above that involving 
loss. Temperature, however, makes so little differ- 
ence, that at 550° the quantity is only 4 per cent, 
greater than at 300°. 

The intensity of draughts is independent of the size 
of the chimney, and depends upon the difference in 
the weights of the inside and outside columns of air, 
but it is usually understood to be equivalent to a 
column of water, which varies generally from to 2 
inches. This variation depends on the height and 
difference of temperature. It also varies with the 
kind and condition of fuel used and thickness of the 
fire. 

Wood as fuel requires the least draught, and fine 
coal the most intense ; in the latter case it requires the 
weight of a column of water 1\ inches high, and this 
can be attained in well-proportioned chimneys of or- 
dinary height in localities where there is no obstruc- 
tion. The draught for any given chimney may be 
found by multiplying the height of the chimney 
above the grate, in feet, by the decimal .0073 ; the 
product will give the draught in inches of water. 

Round chimneys, or funnels, as they are sometimes 
called, produce better draught than square ones, conse- 
quently wrought-iron chimneys are coming into very 
general use in different parts of the country, partic- 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 237 



STEARN'S TUBULAR FIRE-BOX BOILER. 

This cut represents the Steam's Tubular Fire-box Boil- 
er, with base of smoke-stack, dome, pressure-gauge, safety- 
valve, steam-pipe, whistle, gauge-cocks, glass water-gauge, 
man-hole, fire- and ash-pit jaws, back and front legs, 
skids, etc. 



238 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

ularly in the New England States. A round wrought- 
iron chimney 50 feet high would produce as good a 
draught as a square brick chimney TO feet high, 
although the first cost of the latter would be three 
times that of the former. The wrought-iron chimney 
is less durable than the brick. 

The inside, or core, should increase in diameter 
from its base, in the proportion of one brick to every 
25 feet ; while the outside should taper about six 
inches for every 25 feet from the bottom to the top. 
The proper size of core for the chimney, intended for 
any boiler or boilers, may be found by multiplying 
the combined area of all the tubes and flues together, 
and adding one-fifth to the result. 

HOW STEAM-BOILERS ARE MADE. 

The first condition to be determined in relation to 
the construction of steam-boilers is capacity, which 
includes diameter, length, heating surface, etc. The 
next is the pressure to be carried, tensile strength, 
quality of material, workmanship, resistance to rup- 
ture, margin of safety, etc. 

The foregoing facts being determined, the boiler= 
plate may be ordered from the rolling-mill, to form 
a ream of any diameter, or the tensile strength and 
thickness to safely resist any given pressure, after 
which it is laid off with template, and the rivet holes 
centred. They are next punched, then sheared, and, 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 239 

in all large shops, planed on the edges, in order to 
prevent the necessity of chipping, after which they 
are rolled to the desired circle and diameter. 

The punched sheets or reams are next fitted up, 
which means put together and basted with rough 
bolts, nuts, and washers, after which they are drifted 
with tapering steel pins, for the purpose of bringing 
the holes of the sheets in line. They are next reamed 
out with a steel reamer, for the purpose of rendering 
the holes parallel. 

The distance between the centre of the rivets is 
termed the pitch, which varies according to the thick- 
ness of the plate in the diameter of the rivet. The 
size of the latter has been approximately determined 
by experience and experiment. There are two 
methods of riveting boiler seams, viz., hand and 
machine riveting. In the former the rivet is heated 
to nearly its fusing temperature, either by gas, soft 
coal, or charcoal, after which it is inserted in the 
hole, upset, and riveted down, until a steam- and 
water-tight joint is effected. 

In the case of steam riveting, after the rivet is in- 
serted in the hole, the material is headed together by 
a die in the riveting-machine bull or ram, or what 
other name it may be termed, which exerts pressure 
against it varying from 50 to 100 tons per square 
inch, after which the piston of the machine is with- 
drawn and allowed to recoil, which gives the rivet a 
powerful stroke, which results in a permanent set. 



240 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Machine riveting is very much superior to hand 
riveting", a proof of which may be found in the fact, 
that, when new machine work has to be altered, or 
old work taken apart, it is more difficult to separate 
it than it would be in the case of hand riveting. 
This is due to the fact that the holes in the sheet, 
and every crevice in the material, are better filled with 
the rivet than could be effected by hand, under the 
most favorable condition and with the best skilled 
operatives. 

After the riveting is finished, the chippers and 
caulkers commence operations, for the purpose of 
making the joints steam- and water-tight, after which 
the boiler is filled with cold water, for the purpose 
of ascertaining if there are any leaks. If any should 
appear, the location is chalk-marked, the water run 
out, and the seam or rivets recaulked. The tubes 
are next inserted, and in some cases, particularly in 
the case of locomotives, the boiler is placed under 
steam, for the purpose of ascertaining if it is steam- 
worthy, after which the crown dome, front, and back 
braces are adjusted. 

Locomotive or marine boilers maybe divided into 
three sections, viz., fire-box, waste, and smoke-box. 
Ordinary stationary tubular boilers consist of the 
combustion chamber shell, and tubes or flues, as the 
case may be. 

A direct draught is that which escapes directly from 
the furnace to the chimney, while a return draught 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 241 

passes under the shell of the boiler, and returns 
through the tubes or flues to the chimneys. 

It will be observed that the seams of steam-boilers 
which run parallel to the length of the boiler are 
called the longitudinal seams, and are almost in- 
variably double riveted, because there is twice the 
amount of strain on them that there is on the curvi- 
linear seams. The curvilinear are those which en- 
circle the boiler, and which sustain only half the 
resistance that the longitudinal seams do, and may 
be single riveted. 




SMOKE. 

Very few subjects connected with steam engineer- 
ing have attracted so much of the attention of vis- 
ionary theorists, or on which so many vagaries have 
been advanced, as the immense saving which would 
be effected by the consumption of smoke. 

Numerous inventions, contrivances, and arrange- 
ments have been introduced for the purpose of con- 
suming smoke, but they invariably failed to produce 
satisfactory results. The combustion appliance and 
the smoke-consuming furnace are the latest, and it. 
has been claimed that they have successfully accom- 
21 Q 



242 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

plished the desired object, and that the old adage, 
which says " smoke in the wood and no fire," is en- 
tirely reversed, as the proverb reads now " fire in 
the wood and no smoke." 

Now there is no such thing as a smoke-consuming 
furnace, because smoke cannot be consumed by any 
known mechanical arrangement, and if it could it 
would effect no saving in fuel, because there is no 
combustible in it that is of any value as fuel. If it 
was established beyond argument, evasion, or denial, 
that smoke could be successfully consumed, then we 
could consume exhaust-steam, because 90 per cent, 
of smoke is steam, the other 10 per cent, being color- 
ing matter, which chemically unites with the steam 
and gives the volume a black appearance. Smoke 
and steam might be designated under two heads by 
white and black steam. 

The desirability of consuming smoke is urged on 
the ground that, when large quantities of it are de- 
livered into the atmosphere, it impregnates the air 
with a disagreeable odor, and has a tendency to ob- 
struct the sun's rays, darken the firmament, and 
obstruct that light, agreeable, and genial sunshine 
which is £0 desirable to man, birds, beasts, and ani- 
mals, and so necessary to vegetation. 

But it must be remembered that, if it were pos- 
sible to extract the coloring matter from the smoke 
at the point of its delivery at the top of the chimney, 
it would fall down in black powder on the surface 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 243 

beneath it, ruin clothing, obstruct vegetation, and 
prove to be a more intolerable nuisance than in its 
present form. 

It has been demonstrated by experience and ob- 
servation that the presence of smoke in the atmos- 
phere, though objectionable, is not unhealthy. The 
inhabitants of Birmingham and Swansea, England, 
and of Pittsburgh, Pa., are just as healthy and as 
free from epidemics as the denizens of any other 
cities in Great Britain or the United States. 

Smoke may be rarefied, so that it will be freed 
from its black color, and escape unobserved at the 
top of the chimney ; but this can only be accom- 
plished by keeping the fuel on the grates evenly dis- 
tributed, so that there will be no interstices through 
which the cold air may enter the furnace, when, by 
keeping the furnace at a uniform pressure, and sup- 
plying* fresh fuel evenly, frequently, and in small 
quantities, the smoke will assume the appearance of 
gas or rarefied air ; but as soon as the temperature 
of the furnace is lowered, and fuel supplied in large 
quantities, the smoke will make its appearance again. 

There has been more money lost, both in this 
country and England, in attempts to consume smoke 
than would be gained if the smoke from every steam- 
boiler in the world could be consumed. Attempts 
to consume smoke, like the attempts to substitute the 
air-engine for the steam-engine, and the rotary for 
the reciprocating engine, were prevalent in the days 
of Watt, but they always produce the same results. 



244 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 



SHOWING THE 


SAFE WORKING INTERNAL 


PRESSURES FOR 




IRON BOILERS. 






Birmingham Wire 

Gauge. 


1 


00 





1 


2 


Thickness of Iron. 


.375 

t 


.358 
f Scant. 


.340 
ii 

32" 


.300 
A 


.284 

9 
3"2" 




Dia. 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 




In. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


External 


24 


180.65 


172.20 


163.29 


143.59 


135.75 


Diameter. 


26 


166.34 


158.58 


150.39 


132.28 


125.08 




28 


154.13 


146.96 


139.38 


122.63 


115.95 




30 


143.59 


136.92 


129.88 


114.29 


108.07 




32 


134.40 


128.17 


121.58 


107.01 


101.20 




34 


126.31 


120.47 


114.29 


100.60 


95.14 




36 


119.15 


113.64 


107.81 


94.92 


89.77 




38 


112.75 


107.54 


102.04 


89:84 


84.98 




40 


107.01 


102.07 


96.85 


85.28 


80.67 




42 


101.81 


97.12 


92.11 


81.16 


76.77 


Longitudinal 


44 


97.11 


92.63 


87.90 


77.42 


73.24 


Seams, 


46 


92.82 


88.54 


84.02 


74.01 


70.01 


Single 


48 


88.89 


84.80 


80.47 


70.89 


67.06 


Riveted. 


50 


85.28 


81.36 


77.21 


68.02 


64.35 




52 


81.95 


78.18 


74.20 


65.37 


61.84 




54 


78.87 


75.25 


71.42 


62.92 


59.53 




56 


76.02 


72.53 


68.84 


60.65 


57.38 




58 


73.36 


70.00 


66.43 


58.54 


55.38 




60 


70.89 


67.63 


64.19 


56.57 


53.52 



It will be noticed that if a boiler was 24 inches 
in diameter and three-eighths of an inch thick, and 
single riveted, the safe working pressure would be 
180.65 pounds; while if it was 80 inches in diame- 
ter, and the same thickness of plate, the safe work- 
ing pressure would be 53 pounds. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



245 



TABL E— (Continued) 



SHOWING 


THE 


SAFE WOEKING INTEENAL PEESSUEES FOR 






IEON BOILEES. 


Birmingham 
Wire Gauge. 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Thickness 


.259 


.238 


.220 


.203 


.180 


.165 


of Iron. 


i Full. 


^ Scant. 


h 


& Full. 


3 6 2Sca't. 


3 5 2FU11. 




Dia. 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 
sq. in. 




In. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


External 


24 


123.53 


113.31 


104.58 


96.36 


85.28 


78.07 


Diameter. 


26 


113.84 


104.44 


96.40 


88.83 


78.63 


71.99 




28 


105.55 


96.85 


89.40 


82.39 


72.94 


66.79 




30 


98.39 


90.29 


83.36 


76.83 


68.02 


62.29 




32 


92.14 


84.56 


78.07 


71.96 


63.72 


58.35 




34 


86.64 


79.51 


73.42 


67.68 


59.93 


54.89 




36 


81.75 


75.04 


69.29 


63.88 


56.57 


51.81 




38 


77.39 


71.04 


65.60 


60.48 


53.56 


49.06 




40 


72.47 


67.44 


62.29 


57.42 


50.86 


46.58 




42 


69.93 


64.19 


59.29 


54.66 


48.41 


44.35 




44 


66.71 


61.24 


56.57 


52.15 


46.20 


42.32 


Long. 


46 


63.78 


58.55 


54.08 


49.87 


44.17 


40.46 


Seams, 


48 


61.09 


56.09 


51.81 


47.77 


42.32 


38.77 


Single 


50 


58.62 


53.82 


49.72 


45.84 


40.61 


37.21 


Riveted. 


52 


56.35 


51.74 


47.79 


44.07 


39.04 


35.77 




54 


54.24 


49.80 


46.00 


42.42 


37.58 


34.43 




56 


52.28 


48.01 


44.35 


40.90 


36.23 


33.20 




58 


50.46 


46.34 


42.81 


39.48 


34.98 


32.04 




60 


48.77 


44.78 


41.37 


38.15 


33.80 


30.97 



It will be seen by the above table that if a boiler 
was made of No. 8 iron, and 80 inches in diameter, 
it would be safe only under a pressure of 23 pounds. 
If a partial vacuum could be produced in such a 
boiler, it would be in danger of collapsing under the 
pressure of the atmosphere on its external surface. 
21* 



246 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE- 



SHOWING THE 


SAFE WORKING INTERNAL 


PRESSURES POK 




IRON BOILERS. 




Birmingham Wire 
Gauge. 


3 


00 





1 


2 


Thickness of Iron. 


.375 

3 

8 


.358 
| Scant. 


.340 
i i 

32 


.300 


.284 

9 
32 




Dia. 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 




In. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


External 


24 


225.81 


215.26 


204.12 


179.49 


169.67 


Diameter. 


26 


207.93 


198.23 


187.91 


165.35 


156.34 




28 


192.66 


183.70 


174.23 


153.28 


144.94 




30 


179.49 


171.15 


162.35 


142.86 


135.09 




32 


168.00 


160.21 


151.98 


133.76 


126.49 




34 


157.89 


150.58 


142.86 


125.75 


118.93 




36 


148.94 


142.05 


134.77 


118.64 


112.21 




38 


140.94 


134.43 


127.55 


112.30 


106.22 




40 


133.76 


127.58 


121.06 


106.60 


100.83 


Longitudinal 


42 


127.27 


121.40 


115.20 


101.45 


95.96 


Seams, 


44 


121.39 


115.79 


109.88 


96.77 


91.55 


Double 


46 


116.02 


110.68 


105.03 


92.51 


87.52 


Eiveted, 


48 


111.11 


106.00 


100.59 


88.61 


83.83 


Curvilinear 


50 


106.19 


101.70 


96.51 


85.02 


80.43 


Seams, 


52 


102.44 


97.73 


92.75 


81.71 


77.33 


Single 


54 


98.59 


94.10 


89.27 


78.69 


74.41 


Eiveted. 


56 


95.02 


90.66 


86.04 


75.81 


71.73 




58 


91.70 


87.49 


83.04 


73.17 


69.23 




60 


88.61 


84.54 


80.24 


70.71 


66.90 



It will be observed by the above table that if a 
boiler was 24 inches in diameter, made of three- 
eighths of an inch iron and double riveted, its safe 
working pressure would be 225.81 pounds; while if 
the same boiler was 80 inches in diameter, its safe 
working pressure would be only 45.62 pounds. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



247 



TABL E-( 



SHOWING THE 


SAFE WORKING INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON 


BOILERS. 


Birmingham 
Wire Gauge. 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Thickness 


.259 

i 
Full. 


.238 


.220 


.203 

A 

Full. 


.180 


.165 


of Iron. 


Scant. 


A 


A 

Scant. 


A 

Full. 




Dia. 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 


lbs. per 




In. 


sq. m. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


sq. in. 


External 


24 


154.42 


141.64 


130.73 


120.45 


106.60 


97.59 


Diameter. 


26 


142.30 


130.54 


120.50 


111.04 


98.21 


89.99 




28 


131.94 


121.06 


111.76 


102.99 


91.17 


83.48 




30 


122.99 


112.86 


104.19 


96.03 


85.02 


77.86 




32 


116.32 


105.70 


97.59 


89.95 


79.65 


72.94 




34 


108.30 


99.39 


91.78 


84.60 


74.91 


68.61 




36 


102.19 


93.80 


86.61 


79.84 


70.71 


64.76 




38 


96.74 


88.80 


82.00 


75.60 


66.95 


61.32 




40 


91.84 


84.30 


77.86 


71.78 


63.57 


58.23 




42 


87.41 


80.24 


74.11 


68.33 


60.52 


55.44 




44 


83.39 


76.56 


70.71 


65.19 


57.75 


52.90 


Long. 


46 


79.72 


73.19 


67.60 


62.33 


55.22 


50.58 


Seams, 


48 


76.37 


70.11 


64.76 


59.71 


52.90 


48.46 


Double 


50 


73.28 


67.28 


62.11 


57.31 


50.77 


46.51 


Riveted. 


52 


70.43 


64.67 


59.74 


55.08 


48.80 


44.71 


Curvil. 


54 


67.80 


62.25 


57.51 


53.40 


46.98 


43.04 


Seams, 


56 


65.35 


60.01 


55.44 


51.12 


45.29 


41.50 


Single 


58 


63.07 


57.92 


53.51 


49.35 


43.72 


40.06 


Riveted. 


60 


60.96 


55.98 


51.71 


47.69 


42.25 


38.71 



It will be understood in the above table that, if a 
boiler was 24 inches in diameter, made of No. 6 iron 
and double riveted, its safe working pressure would 
be 120.45 pounds ; while if the diameter was 80 
inches, the safe working pressure would be only 35. 11 
pounds, the bursting pressure in all cases being taken 
at five times the safe working pressure. 



248 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE DIMINUTION IN THE TENACITY OP WROUGHT- 
IRON WHEN EXPOSED TO HIGH TEMPERATURES. 







Diminution 






Diminution 


c. 


Fah. 


per cent, of 
Max. Tenacity 


C. 


Fah. 


per cent, of 
Max. Tenacity 










271° 


520° 


0.0738 


440° 




0.2010 


299 




0.0869 


500 


932° 


0.3324 


313 




0.0899 


508 




0.3593 


316 




0.0964 


554 




0.4478 


332 


630 


0.1047 


599 




0.5514 


350 




0.1155 


624 


1154 


0.6000 


378 




0.1436 


626 




0.6011 


389 


732 


0.1491 


642 




0.6352 


390 




0.1535 


669 




0.6622 


408 




0.1589 


674 


1245 


0.6715 


410 




0.1627 


708 


1306 


0.7001 



The contraction of a wrought-iron rod in cooling 
is about equivalent to 7 q Joir °f * ts length from a de- 
crease of 15° Fah., and the strain thus induced is 
about one ton for every square inch of sectional area 
in the bar. 

Fop a rod of the lengths given below, the contrac- 
tion will be as follows : 
Length of rod, in feet, 10 20 30 40 50 75 100 150 



f 15° .012 .024 .036 .048 .060 .090 .120 .180 

totoS^for 1 100 ° - 080 - 160 - 240 - 320 - 400 - 600 - 800 1 - 200 
( 150° .120 .240 .360 .480 .600 .900 1.200 1.800 

Contraction and expansion being equal, the press- 
ure per square inch induced by heating or cooling is 
as follows : 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



249 



Fop temperatures varying by 15° Fah. : 

Variation, 15 30 45 60 75 105 120 150 degrees. 
Pressure, 12345 7 8 10 tons. 

Stoney gives 14.4 Fah. as equivalent to a pressure 
of one ton per square inch for wrought-iron, and 27 
Fah. for cast-iron. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE LINEAR EXPANSION OP DIFFERENT METALS 
BY HEAT FOR EACH DEGREE FAH. 



Zinc . 


. 0.00294 






Lead 


. 0.00284 






Tin . 


. 0.00222 






Copper, yellow 


. 0.00188 






Copper, red 


. 0.00171 






Forged iron * . 


. 0.00122 


.0000122 


.00000677 


Steel f 


. 0.00114 


.0000114 


.00000633 


Cast-iron * 


. 0.00111 


.0000111 


.00000616 



Fop a change of 100° Fah., a bar of iron 1475' 
long will extend one foot. Similarly, a bar 100 feet 
long will extend .0678 foot, or .8136 inch. 

According to the experiments of Du Long and 
Petit, we have the mean expansion of iron, copper, 
and platinum, between 0° and 100° C, and 0° and 
300° C, as below: 

From 0° to 100° C. From 0° to 300° G 

Iron 0.00180 0.00146 

Copper 0.00171 0.00188 

Platinum 0.00884 0.00918 



* Laplace and Lavoisier. 



t Ramsden. 



250 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



The law for the expansion of iron, steel, and cast, 
iron at very high temperatures, according to Rin* 
man, is as follows : 





From 25° to 525° C. 






Bed Heat = 500° C. 


For 1° C. 1° Fah. 


Iron 


. . .00714 


.0000143 = .0000080 


Steel . 


.01071 


.0000214 = .0000119 


Cast-iron 


.01250 
From 25° to 1300°. 


.0000250 = .0000139 




Nascent White = 1275° C. 


Iron 


.01250 


.00000981 = .00000545 


Steel . 


.01787 


.00001400 = .00000777 


Cast-iron 


.02144 


.00001680 = .00000933 



From 500° to 1500°. 
Dull Red to White Heat = 1000° C. 
Difference. 
Iron . . . .00535 .00000535= .0000030 

Steel . . . .00714 .00000714= .0000040 

Cast-iron . . .00893 .00000893= .0000050 

RATIO OF EXPANSION IN HUNDRED PARTS, ASSUMING FORGE 
IRON TO EXPAND BETWEEN 0° AND 100° C. = .00122. 



From 0° to 100°. 25° to 525°. 

Iron . 100 per ct. 117 per ct. 
Steel . 93 " 175 " 
Cast-iron 91 " 205 " 



25° to 1300°. 500 to 1500°. 

80 per ct. 44 per ct. 

114 " 58 " 

137 " 73 " 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS, 

IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. 
Materials. Tension. 

Steel plates, English 78,000 

" " American 70,000 

" " " 94,450 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



251 



Materials. Tension. 

Steel plates, Bessemer 98,600 

tool ..... 112,000 

" wire 225,000 

" rolled and hammered, ingots .... 125,000 

"bar 120,700 

" " tempered ....... 214,400 

. " Chrome 180,000 

" round bars 95,558 

" plates 85,792 

" Hematite 72,285 

" Krupps . 93,229 

11 Fagersta 87,718 

Wrought-iron, bars 65,520 

. 56,000 

charcoal bars 63,616 



Cast-iron 



cold rolled, Staffordshire 
Low Moor plates 



Amer: 



can boiler plate 



bar 

" mean 

" good . . . 
" refined . 
" best . 
wire, unannealed . 

" annealed 
rivet rods .... 

large forgings 35,000 

average 16,500 

superior quality 18,000 

with wrought scrap .... 28,000 
average, English 15,299 



85,030 
55,530 
60,000 
57,639 

52,000 
57,500 
44,800 
60,000 
70,000 
76,160 
75,000 
45^000 
65)000 



252 THE YOtJNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Materials. Tension. 

Cast-iron, pigs . . . . ... . 12,880 

1st melting 20,877 

2d 24,774 

3d ...... 26,790 

4th " 27,888 

" 38 samples from a Rodman gun . . 37,811 

" gun metal 60,000 

Copper, wrought 33,600 

cast 22,557 

20,000 

" " 19,000 

sheet 30,000 

" wire 60,000 

bolts 35,840 

Gun metal, bronze, average 33,000 

■ «■'■■« 36,000 

Aluminum " 90 copper, 1 aluminum . . 73,181 

Phosphor, bronze, average 34,465 

Brass, cast 18,000 

" wire, annealed 49,000 

" hard 80,000 

Antimony 1,000 

Bismuth 3,200 

Gold, cast 20,000 

" wire 30,000 

Silver, cast 41,000 

" wire at 32° F., . . . . . . 40,320 

" 212° R, . . ... . . 33,152 

" 392° F., 26,432 

Tin, cast 4,600 

"_"-..' 4,725 

" wire . 7,000 

Lead, cast . ' 1,800 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



253 



Materials. 




Tension. 


Lead, sheet 




. 1,925 


" pipe . 




. 2,240 


Zinc, cast . 




. 2,990 


" sheet 




. 16,000 


" wire . 


TABLE 


. 22,000 



SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SUR- 
FACE WHICH EXPERIENCE HAS SHOWN TO BE CAPABLE OF 
EVAPORATING THE NECESSARY QUANTITY OF WATER, TO 
DEVELOP A HORSE-POWER UNDER ORDINARY CIRCUMSTANCES. 







Coal 




Relative 


Type of Boiler. 


Sq. ft. for 


for each 


Relative 


Rapidity 
of Steam- 


one H. P. 


sq. ft. 


Economy. 










ing. 


Flue . 


10 to 12 


.4 to .5 


.80 


.26 


Plain cylinder . 


8 to 10 


.3 


.60 


.19 


Tubular . 


16 to 20 


25 


.90 


.51 


"Water tube 


12 to 14 


.4 


1.00 


1.00 


Locomotive 


16 to 25 


.275 


.96 


.70 


Vertical tubular 


14 to 20 


.25 


.80 


.65 



The pressure of the atmosphere on the outside of a 
steam-boiler is equal to 14.T pounds per square inch, 
consequently it balances an equal steam pressure on 
the inside. If the air was exhausted from the in- 
side of the boiler, and a partial vacuum produced, 
the pressure of the atmosphere on the outside would 
have a tendency to produce collapse. 

The ordinary steam-gauge employed in conneo- 
22 



254 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



tion with steam-boilers does not record pressure 
below that of the atmosphere, consequently if the 
pressure on the gauge represents ten pounds per 
square inch, the actual pressure would be 24. 7 pounds. 



TABSLE 

SHOWING THE INCREASE OF SENSIBLE HEAT AND THE DE- 
CREASE OP LATENT HEAT, ACCORDING TO PRESSURE, AND 
VICE VERSA. 



'Steam Pressure. 


Sensible Heat. 


Latent Heat. 


Relative Volume. 


15 lbs. 


212° 


966.2° 


1669 cubic feet. 


30 " 


251° 


939.0° 


881 " 


45 " 


275° 


922.7° 


608 " 


60 " 


294° 


909.2° 


467 " " 


75 " 


309° 


898.5° 


381 " " 


90 " 


320° 


891.3° 


323 " 



It will be seen from the above table that tempera- 
ture and pressure are constant factors, and the sen- 
sible and latent heat are nearly so, but the volume 
varies according to pressure. Steam at a pressure of 
15 pounds per square inch has a volume of 1669 
cubic feet, while at 90 pounds the volume is reduced 
to 323 cubic feet, for every cubic foot of water em- 
ployed. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



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256 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 






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Superheated is steam which has been admitted to 
a superheater and receives additional heat and elas- 
ticity by being dried or relieved of its moisture. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



257 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE ELASTICITY, TEMPERATURE, VOLUME, AND 
VELOCITY, WITH WHICH STEAM WOULD ESCAPE INTO THE 
ATMOSPHERE, AT A PRESSURE OF FROM 14.7 POUNDS PER 
SQUARE INCH, 212° FAH., TO 441 POUNDS TO 426.3° FAH., 
ABOVE ATMOSPHERE. 



Inches of 


Pounds per 


Press, above 


Tempera- 




Velocity of) 


Mercury. 


Square Inch 


Atmosphere 


ture. 




Escape. 


30.00 


14.70 


0. 


212. ° 


1700 




30.60 


15.00 




212.8 


1669 




31.62 


15.50 


0.8 


214.5 


1618 




32.64 


16.00 


1.3 


216.3 


1573 




33.66 


16.50 




218. 


1530 




34.68 


17.00 


2.3 


219.6 


1488 




35.70 


17.50 




221.2 


1440 




36.72 


18.00 


3.3 


222.7 


1411 




37.74 


18.50 




224.2 


1377 


874 


38.76 


19.00 


4.3 


225.6 


1343 




39.78 


19.50 




227.1 


1312 




40.80 


20.00 


5.3 


228.5 


1281 




41.82 


20.50 




229.9 


1253 




42.84 


21.00 


6.3 


231.2 


1225 




43.86 


21.50 




232.5 


1199 




44.88 


22.00 


7.3 


233.8 


1174 


1135 


45.90 


22.50 




235.1 


1150 




46.92 


23.00 


8.3 


236.3 


1127 




47.94 


23.50 




237.5 


1105 




48.96 


24.00 


9.3 


238.7 


1084 




49.98 


24.50 




239.9 


1064 




51.00 


25.00 


10.3 


241. 


1044 




53.04 


26.00 


11.3 


243.3 


1007 


1295 


55.08 


27. 


12.3 


245.5 


973 




57.12 


28. 


13.3 


247.6 


941 




59.16 


29. 


14.3 


249.6 


911 


1407 


61.20 


30. 


15.3 


251.6 


883 




63.24 


31. 


16.3 


253.6 


857 




65.28 


32. 


17.3 


255.5 


833 




67.32 


33. 


18.3 


257.3 


810 


1491 


69.96 


34. 


10.3 


259.1 


788 




71.40 


35. 


20.3 


260.9 


767 





22 -> 



258 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 





TABLE 


—(Continued). 




Inches of 


Pounds per 


Press, ahove 


Tempera- 


Volume. 


Velocity of 


Mercury. 


Square Inch 


Atrnosphex - e 


ture. 




Escape. 


73.44 


36. 


21.3 


262.6° 


748 




75.48 


37. 


22.3 


264.3 


729 


1550 


77.52 


38. 


23.3 


265.9 


712 




79.56 


39. 


24.3 


367.5 


695 




81.60 


40. 


25.3 


269.1 


679 


1600 


83.64 


41. 


26.3 


270.6 


664 




85.68 


42. 


27.3 


272.1 


649 




87.72 


43. 


28.3 


273.6 


635 




89.76 


44. 


29.3 


275. 


622 


1652 


91.80 


45. 


30.3 


276.4 


610 




93.84 


46. 


31.3 


277.8 


598 




: 95.88 


47. 


32.3 


279.2 


586 




97.92 


48. 


33.3 


280.5 


575 


1690 


i 99.96 


49. 


34.3 


281.9 


564 




102.00 


50. 


35.3 


283.2 


554 




104.04 


51. 


36.3 


284.4 


544 


1720 


106.08 


52. 


37.3 


285.7 


534 




108.12 


53. 


38.3 


286.9 


525 




110.16 


54. 


39.3 


288.1 


516 




112.20 


55. 


40.3 


289.3 


508 


1750 


114.24 


56. 


41.3 


290.5 


500 




116.28 


57. 


42.3 


291.7 


492 




118.32 


58. 


43.3 


292.9 


484 


1774 


120.36 


59. 


44.3 


294.2 


477 




122.40 


60. 


45.3 


295.6 


470 




124.44 


61. 


46.3 


296.9 


463 




126.48 


62. 


47.3 


298.1 


456 




128.52 


63. 


48.3 


299.2 


449 




130.66 


64. 


49.3 


300.3 


443 




132.60 


65. 


50.3 


301.3 


437 




134.64 


66. 


51.3 


302.4 . 


431 


1816 


136.68 


67. 


52.3 


303.4 


425 




138.72 


68. 


53.3 


304.4 


419 




140.76 


69. 


54.3 


305.4 


414 




142.80 


70. 


55.3 


306.4 


408 




144.84 


71. 


56.3 


307.4 


403 




146.88 


72. 


57.3 


308.4 


398 




148.92 


73] 


5S.3 


309.3 


393 


1850 


150.96 


74. 


59.3 


310.3 


388 





THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



259 





TABL ~&— (Continued). 




Inches of 


Pounds per 


Press, above 


Tempera- 




Velocity of 


Mercury. 


Square Inch 


Atmosphere 


ture. 




Escape. 


153.02 


75. 


60.3 


311.2° 


383 




155.06 


76. 


61.3 


312.2 


379 




157.10 


77. 


62.3 


313.1 


374 




159.14 


78. 


63.3 


314. 


370 




161.18 


79. 


64.3 


314.9 


366 




163.22 


80. 


65.3 


315.8 


362 




165.26 


81. 


66.3 


316.7 


358 




167.80 


82. 


67.3 


317.7 


354 




169.34 


83. 


68.3 


318.4 


350 




171.38 


84. 


69.3 


319.3 


346 




173.42 


85. 


70.3 


320.1 


342 




183.62 


90. 


75.3 


324.3 


325 


1904 


193.82 


95. 


80.3 


328.2 


310 




203.99 


100. 


85.3 


332. 


295 




214.19 


105. 


90.3 


335.8 


282 


1950 


224.39 


110. 


95.3 


339.2 


271 




234.59 


115. 


100.3 


342.7 


259 




244.79 


120. 


105.3 


345.8 


251 


1980 


254.99 


125. 


110.3 


349.1 


240 




265.19 


130. 


115.3 


352.1 


233 




275.39 


135. 


120.3 


355. 


224 


2006 


285.59 


140. 


125.3 


357.9 


218 




295.79 


145. 


130.3 


360.6 


210 




306. 


150. 


135.3 


363.4 


205 


2029 


316.19 


155. 


140.3 


366. 


198 




326.29 


160. 


145.3 


368.7 


193 




336.59 


165. 


150.3 


371.1 


187 




346.79 


170. 


155.3 


373.6 


183 




357. 


175. 


160.3 


376. 


178 




367.2 


180. 


165.3 


378.4 


174 




377.1 


185. 


170.3 


380.6 


169 


2074 


387.6 


190. 


175.3 


382.9 


166 




397.8 


195. 


180.3 


384.1 


161 




408. 


200. 


185.3 


387.3 


158 




44S.8 


220. 


205.3 


392. 




2109 


524.28 


257. 


242.3 


406. 




2136 


599.76 


294. 


279.3 


418. 




2159 


848.68 


367. 


352.3 


429. 




2196 


889.64 


441. 


426.3 


457. 




2226 



260 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH STEAM WILL ESCAPE 
INTO THE ATMOSPHERE AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES FROM 
1 TO 130 POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. 



Pressure above 
the Atmosphere. 


Velocity of Es- 
cape per 
Second. 


Pressure above 
the Atmosphere. 


Velocity of Es- 
cape per 
Second. 


Pounds. 


Feet. 


Pounds. 


Feet. 


1 


540 


50 


1,736 


2 


698 


60 


1,777 


3 


814 


70 


1,810 


4 


905 


80 


1,835 


5 


981 


90 


1,857 


10 


1,232 


100 


1,875 


20 


1,476 


110 


1,889 


30 


1,601 


120 


1,900 


40 


1,681 


130 


1,909 



It will be observed from the above table, that 
steam, at a pressure of 1 pound per square inch 
above atmosphere, will escape through an aperture 
at the rate of 540 feet per second, and that steam at 
130 pounds will escape with a velocity of nearly 2000 
feet per second. 

A cubic foot of water generated into steam at one 
pound pressure per square inch above the atmos- 
phere, will have a volume of nearly 1700 cubic feet 
Steam at this pressure will flow into the atmosphere 
with a velocity of 540 feet per second. Suppose the 
steam was generated in 5 minutes, or 300 seconds, 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 261 

and that the area of an orifice to allow its escape 
as fast as it is generated is required, then 1100 di- 
vided by 540 x by 300, will give the area of the ori- 
fice in square inches. 

If the same quantity of water was generated 
into steam at a pressure of 50 pounds per square 
inch, it would have a volume of 508 cubic feet, and 
would flow into the atmosphere at a velocity of 1136 
feet per second. The area required to allow this 
steam to escape in the same time as in the former 
case may be found by dividing 508 by 1136 x by 300. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING. 

The first operation, preparatory to firing-up, is to 
remove all the ashes and cinders from the surface of 
the grate-bars and corners of the furnace ; then, if 
the fuel is fine coal, viz., chestnut, pea, or pea and 
dust, scatter a small quantity of it over the sur- 
face of the grates, for the purpose of protecting 
them from the intense heat resulting from the fresh 
fire and the clean bars. 

Grate-bars are frequently ruined the first time 
they are used, after being inserted in the furnace. 
This arises from the fact that, at almost any other 
time, they would be protected by a coating of ashes, 
which acts as a non-conductor, but when a fresh fire 
is made by placing wood on the grates, and covering 
it with coal, if the draught is good, the combustion 



262 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

is so rapid and the heat so intense that the fuel soon 
arrives at what is termed a white heat, which will 
melt almost any metal, however refractory. 

If the fuel is lump, broken, egg, or large stove-coal, 
it will not be necessary to cover the grates with fresh 
fuel before firing-up, because the circulation of the air 
through the coarse fuel is more rapid than through 
fine, consequently the heat is not so intense. Coke 
and wood give out an immense heat, and are very 
destructive to grate-bars, and if these fuels did not 
pack close together, they would melt down any 
grate-bar. 

Before commencing to clean a fire, or slice it, as 
it is sometimes called, be sure that you have sufficient 
fuel in the furnace to use as kindlers ; then get up a 
full head of steam, close the damper and open the 
furnace-door, in order to take the white glare off the 
fuel ; then skim the coal back from the cinders to the 
bridge-wall and clean all the ashes out from the fur- 
nace, after which you may draw the coal which was 
pushed back down on the bars, and with the slice- 
bar dig out the cinders which remained near the 
bridge-wall. Hook them out carefully and quickly 
over the live coal, distribute the latter evenly over 
the bars, cover it uniformly with fresh fuel, shut 
the furnace-door, and open the damper to its full 
extent. 

In case there are two or three boilers, with a fur- 
nace extending under all, it is better to clean one fire 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK, 263 

at a time, and when that is burning clearly clean an- 
other, and so on. In cases where coke, wood, saw- 
dust, shavings, tan-bark, or other fuels of this de- 
scription are used, no cleaning is required. Fires in 
which the fuel is pea and dust are the most particular 
of all others to clean, as the body of live fuel on the 
grates is always so thin that a slight miscalculation 
in cleaning may serve to put the fire entirely out. 

When the fuel is bituminous coal, start the fire 
with shavings and kindling, and, when the kindles 
are consumed, strike the coke or coal with the hoe or 
rake, and when it ignites push it back near the bridge- 
wall, and fill the front of the furnace with fresh coal ; 
shut the furnace-door, open the damper, and when 
you discover the coal is coked break it up, push it 
back as before, and fill the mouth of the furnace with 
fresh coal, and so on. 

Never waste a particle of fuel that you can possi- 
bly save, because by so doing you commit a great 
moral wrong. Remember, that if you would aspire 
to be a first-class engineer, you must first be sure 
that you are a good fireman. How could an engi- 
neer, however high the position he might occupy, 
expect to be recognized as a practical man, unless he 
could show his fireman how to handle the shovel, the 
poker, the slice-bar, and the rake ? Perhaps some 
engineers would consider it a disgrace to acknowl- 
edge that they were once firemen, when in fact it is 
an honor. 



264 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 265 

DAMPERS. 

The damper is the mechanical device most gener- 
ally employed for regulating the draught in furnaces 
and chimneys. Dampers may be divided into two 
classes, automatic and adjustable. A cut of tho 
former may be seen on page 264. It is unquestion- 
ably the most proper and economical method of reg- 
ulating the draught of furnaces in chimneys. It will 
commence to close the draught when the steam repre- 
sents about 5 pounds per square inch below the work- 
ing pressure, and will begin to open as soon as the 
steam pressure falls below that point. 

The variation in steam pressure, when regulated 
by an automatic damper, rarely exceeds 3 pounds 
per square inch, while with the damper regulated by 
hand the pressure frequently varies from 10 to 15 
pounds per square inch. The regulation of the draught 
by the damper has not received that attention here- 
tofore that its importance as a condition of economy 
deserves. In consequence of an ignorant or careless 
adjustment of the damper, there is frequently twice 
as much air admitted to the furnace as is necessary, 
while in other cases the quantity is not sufficient. 

In the former case, the products of combustion, 
which should have been absorbed by the boiler, are 
expelled to the chimney ; while in the latter case, the 
combustion is so imperfect that the fuel is actually 
wasted without producing any beneficial result. It 
23 



266 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

is well known that it requires a certain volume of 
air to expite combustion in a given quantity of fuel; 
more than that will produce waste, while less will 
induce unsatisfactory results. By observation, the 
careful and intelligent engineer will learn to set his 
damper so as to give the required draught, and, in 
many instances, it will remain in the same position 
for hours, while other engineers and firemen will be 
opening the damper to its full extent, and closing it 
every few minutes, causing great waste of fuel, and 
in many instances variation in the steam and speed. 
The automatic damper, for its respective purpose, 
like the automatic engine and the automatic steam- 
trap, is destined to supersede all primitive arrange- 
ments for the regulation of draught. 

CARE OF THE STEAM-BOILER. 

Don't fire up under a boiler until you are sure it 
contains sufficient water. 

Don't forget to look at the glass water-gauge, to 
try the. gauge-cocks, and lift the safety-valve the 
first thing in the morning. 

Don't allow the fire to burn fast, when you fire up 
under a steam-boiler containing cold water. 

Don't disturb the safety-valve while the engine is 
stopped and a heavy fire is in the furnace. 

Don't attempt to caulk a boiler while it contains 
either water or steam. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



267 



Don't allow a boiler, or any of its connections, to 
leak, when it is practicable to repair them. 

Don't place extra weights on the safety-valve lever 
because the boiler is too small, or you cannot keep 

» p steam. 




Don't allow a boiler to become dry before com- 
mencing to clean it. 

Don't use a cold-chisel, or any other steel instru- 



268 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

ment except a scraper, for the purpose of removing 
scale from a boiler. 

Don't envelop a boiler in brick-work, or any non- 
conducting substance, without first ascertaining if it 
is steam- and water-tight. 

Don't forget that a boiler will leak cold water 
when it will be perfectly tight under steam. 

Don't forget to examine a boiler on the inside be- 
fore putting into service. 

Don't pour water in the ash-pit of marine, locomo- 
tive, or fire-box boilers. 

Don't forget that lime-water is objectionable for 
setting boilers, and that cement is preferable. 

Don't neglect to clean the boiler in your charge as 
often as practicable. 

Don't use spring water in a boiler, when lake, 
loch, river, or rain water is attainable. 

Don't leave the boiler-room, even for a short time, 
without examining the damper, the glass water- and 
steam-gauges. 

Don't ridicule any fuel, safety, or labor-saving ar- 
rangement connected with steam-boilers. 

Don't condemn any adjunct connected with the 
steam-engine or boiler, without giving it a fair trial. 

Don't encourage the purchase of any appliance 
unless you think it is absolutely necessary. 

Don't allow things in your charge to run on from 
bad to worse, with the idea that some day you will 
make a general overhauling. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 269 

Don't neglect to shut the stop-cock between the 
boiler and the check-valve before removing the lat- 
ter. 

Don't neglect to clean off the head of the boiler, 
glass gauge, and gauge-cocks after you clean the fire. 

Don't neglect to clean the tubes or flues at least 
once a week. 

Don't neglect to remove the ashes under the grate- 
bars every day. 

Don't neglect to grind in the safety-valve, check- 
valve, and gauge-cocks, whenever they need it. 

Don't undertake to clean a fire unless you are sure 
you have sufficient kindles in the furnace. 

Don't disturb a fire when it is low, or part of it is 
dead. 

Don't allow any dead places to exist in the corners 
of the furnace, or any other part of the fire-surface. 

STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 

Steam-boiler explosions, in the majority of cases, 
are attended with loss of life and property. Many 
abstruse theories have been advanced to account for 
such occurrences, but experience and intelligent in* 
vestigation have shown that there is no mystery 
about them, as they are all due to cause and effect 
There may be some instances in which there is a 
certain amount of mystery connected with such 
catastrophes, but if all the facts in the case were 
23* 



270 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

known it would be susceptible of an easy and 
rational explanation. 

When a building falls down, a ship is wrecked in 
a hurricane, a sewer caves in, or a bridge gives way 
under a railway train, nobody tries to invest it with 
mystery. All agree that the structure did not pos- 
sess strength to sustain the pressure, or that the 
ship was not equal to the force that was concen- 
trated against it. The party who refuses to admit 
that any structure may be crushed, any column 
shattered, any beam broken, or mast snapped if 
subjected to a greater strain, force, or pressure than 
that which it was intended to bear, is an infidel. 

Boiler explosions have been comparatively rare 
for thirty years, which may be attributed to the fact 
that an inquisitive investigation had demonstrated 
the cause of them in almost every case, and shown 
that they were all the result of weakness, or resulted 
from the fact that they did not possess sufficient 
strength to resist the pressure, or the strain to 
which they were subjected. While some were yet 
new, and comparatively safe, it was shown that 
the accident resulted from a latent defect, which 
neither the boiler-maker nor inspector was able 
to discover. 

Until quite recently all boiler explosions were 
attributed to one cause — "low water." Doubtless 
some have occurred from that cause, but they were 
few compared to those which occurred from other 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 271 

causes. Explosions, resulting from an insufficiency 
of water, are less destructive than those which take 
place when there is sufficient water in the boiler, 
since if the iron is overheated a portion of its 
tensile strength is destroyed, and it requires less 
pressure to tear it apart than if there was sufficient 
water in the boiler. 

Some of the most terrible and destructive ex- 
plosions that ever occurred in this country, both on 
land and water, took place when, it was in evidence, 
there was abundance of water in the boiler. The 
only cause that can be assigned for boiler explo- 
sions is weakness, which may be attributed to the 
following causes, viz., poor material, inferior work- 
manship, injury inflicted in punching the sheets and 
riveting the seams, incrustation, overheating and 
burning (which induces granulation and brittleness 
in the material), overstraining, faulty design, defec- 
tive bracing, overfiring, loading down the safety' 
valve, neglect, ignorance, etc. 

When a boiler does explode, the conclusion that 
the pressure was too strong for the boiler, or the 
boiler did not possess sufficient strength to resist 
the pressure, and that it gave way in the weakest 
place, is the most logical to advance. 



272 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




THE ADAMS GRATE-BAR. 



GRATE-BARS. 



The object of the grate-bar is to sustain the fuel 
in the furnace, and to admit the necessary quantity 
of air, through their interstices, to insure rapid 
combustion. The oxygen of the air is the only 
supporter of combustion, consequently the amount 
of heat developed in the furnace depends on the 
quantity of air supplied, which in turn depends on 
the size and shape of the orifice through which 
it enters. 

Grate-bars, to be durable and efficient, should 
have a narrow concave surface exposed to the fire ; 
the spaces for the admission of the air should be as 
numerous as would be compatible with sufficient 
strength ; they should be skilfully designed, and 
the metal so distributed as to induce the least pos- 
sible strain by expansion or contraction. This was 
one of the great difficulties experienced in the use 
of old-style grate-bars. 

Grate-bars should be as thin and as deep as cir- 
cumstances will permit, because this insures free 
access of the air, and prevents the bars from being 
over-heated. They should be bevelled or wedge- 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



27S 



on one end, so that the bar, when expand- 
ing, may remove any obstacle in front of it, and 
obviate the difficulties induced by springing. Lock- 
jointed bars are desirable, because they keep intact 
better than single bars ; but bars cast in gangs or 
in sections, with small intermediate bars between 
them, do not always prove economical at the first 
cost, because a small piece may be cracked by extra 
expansion and drop out, the result of which is the 
whole section is ruined. 




THE "COMMON SENSE" STEAM-BOILER. 

BOILER BRACES. 

Boiler braces may be enumerated as follows: 
crown, dome, angle, diagonal, toggle, lug, crow-foot, 
leg, hip, fire-box, tap-bolt, side, fore, aft, head, and 



274 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

tube-sheet. There are various methods in vogue 
for the purpose of attaching braces and stay-bolts to 
the shells, crowns, and water-legs of steam-boilers, 
but experience has shown that a lug, attached to the 
part to be braced by one, two, or more moderate 
sized rivets, is much stronger than when the stay, 
stud, or brace is tapped into the plate or shell. 

The difficulty in the case of stay-bolts does not 
ordinarily arise from the tensile strength exerted 
upon the bolt by the steam pressure, but from rela- 
tive changes in position of the two sheets through 
which the bolt passes, caused by a difference in the 
temperature of the two sheets, and the consequent 
difference in expansion. 

For instance, if the side-sheet of a fire-box of a 
locomotive or marine boiler expands in a vertical 
direction one-eighth of an inch or more than the 
outside sheet, then all bolts in the top row will have 
their inner ends forced upwards from their original 
position to that extent, and the boilers must bend or 
spring accordingly ; whereas, when both sheets be- 
come again of the same temperature, the ends of the 
bolts are drawn back to their original position. 

If a stay is properly attached to the part which it 
was intended to strengthen, it will withstand, on a 
straight pull, a resistance equal to its tensile strength, 
or it will resist the force of compression equal to its 
crushing strength ; but, if it stands slightly oblique, 
its power of resistance will be very much diminished. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 275 

SOLVENTS TOR REMOVING SCALE AND INCRUS- 
TATION FROM STEAM-BOILERS. 

Incrustation, or scale, as it is more generally 
called, resulting from the precipitation of the matter 
held in suspension and solution by water, has been a 
source of more or less anxiety, and an obstacle pre- 
venting the full realization of economy anticipated 
by the adoption of steam as a motor. It was not, 
however, until after the perfection of the materials 
now universally used in boiler construction, admit- 
ting of the employment of high pressures, that the 
real danger from incrustation became apparent and 
a remedy imperative. 

Under the head of Chemistry, many compounds 
and solutions have been prepared, designedly for the 
purpose of preventing the disastrous consequences so 
apt to result from the formation of large quantities 
of scale, and also to reduce the loss occasioned by 
its presence. 

Some of these are honestly compounded to relieve 
the steam used of this most potent cause of boiler 
deterioration; while others, manufactured by inex- 
perienced persons lacking the knowledge essential to 
the production of a chemical preparation, will prove 
of little use in but a limited number of instances ; 
their value as solvents being more imaginative than 
real. On the other hand, many chemical prepara- 
tions are compounded and sold as a mere matter of 



276 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

business, being simple mixtures of soda ash, barks, 
or other cheap refuse chemicals, having no especial 
virtue in preventing incrustation, and are merely 
factors for increasing bulk, weight, and profit ; com- 
pounds of this character not infrequently prove in- 
jurious to the boiler iron, causing serious weakness 
from internal corrosion. 

A Compound that has secured universal recog- 
nition from manufacturers, engineers, inspectors, 
chemists, and others, as the only scientific prepara- 
tion of a chemical character known, is that manu- 
factured by George W. Lord, of Philadelphia, Pa. ; 
this compound possesses the merit of removing scale 
and preventing deposits, under all the varying con- 
ditions known to the steam users of Canada, Mexico, 
and the United States, when applied intelligently, 
and according to the directions furnished to every 
purchaser, who forwards Mr. Lord a sample of the 
scale formed for analysis. This compound is guar- 
anteed to prevent oxidation, deformation, rupture, 
and all other accidents resulting from large deposits 
of scale. 

Lord's Compound contains no chemical that will 
in any wise injure the material of the boiler ; but, on 
the contrary, acts as a preservative, protecting the 
iron from the corrosive action of the acid and mineral 
solutions, which, but for the neutralizing effects of 
the compound, would develop into some one of the 
numerous forms of internal corrosion; neither does 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 277 

it act injuriously on the steam cylinder or valves of 
engines taking steam from boilers in which it is used, 
a not infrequent occurrence when compounds largely 
composed of soda ash are used. 

Professors Liebig and Mapes asserted that the 

reason why Americans were so much afflicted with 
dyspepsia, tetter, and frequently scrofula, was be- 
cause they never eat a sufficient quantity of onions 
and apples ; the same may be said in regard to the 
general use in steam-boilers of a compound, such as 
that manufactured by Mr. Lord to remove the cause 
now rendering so many boilers unserviceable. 




THE GALLOWAY STEAM-BOILER. 

BOILER MATERIALS. 

Boiler-plate is designated under two heads, be- 
cause charcoal is the fuel used in the heating and 
smelting process. They are also known as waste 
and flange iron. The advantages of this latter brand 
are not due to the fact that it possesses great tensile 
strength or reliance, but that the plates, after being 
heated in a charcoal, coke, or soft coal fire, may be 
24 



278 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

flanged or shaped into any desirable form, by the use 
of wooden mauls instead of sledges, consequently 
it Las superseded cast-iron for boiler-heads of almost 
every design — convex, concave, inverted, bulge, egg- 
shaped, etc. 

Charcoal iron is incapable of resisting high tem- 
perature, but when backed by water, as in the case 
of steam-boilers, it meets all the requirements of 
good boiler-plates ; besides, it is easily chipped and 
caulked, and when re-heated and hammered shows 
increased tensile strength, and is capable of great 
resistance. The furnace plates for the fire-boxes of 
locomotives and marine boilers are generally manu- 
factured by this process, but great care must be ex- 
ercised m the heating, moulding, ruling, and ham- 
mering process, otherwise defects will develop after 
the boilers are in use. 

Owing to the fact that it is impossible for the pur- 
chaser to determine the exact quality of the plate, 
he has to rely, to a certain extent, on the reputation 
of the manufacturer ; even then it frequently occurs 
that, though a majority of the plates may prove 
what they were recommended to be, some will turn 
out to be worthless, and require removal, patching, 
and repairs, while the boiler is yet new. However 
generously steel has been used for the shells and tubes 
of boilers, after a trial of several years, under vary- 
ing circumstances, it has not superseded good 
wrought-iron. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



279 




FURNACES. 

The furnaces of steam-boilers, like the steam 
boiler itself, have never received that attention from 
engineers which their importance in an economical 
point of view deserves. In a majority of cases the 



280 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

furnace consists of a fire-brick chamber, was con- 
structed under the idea that, if it would hold a cer- 
tain quantity of coal, and insure sufficient draught to 
consume it, it met all requirements. 

Recently, however, attention has been directed to 
the improvement of the furnace ; as a result, ordi- 
nary furnaces are better constructed, and more prac- 
ticably designed, to produce perfect combustion, and 
assist in transmitting more of its products to the 
water, while such an improvement as the " Jarvis " 
furnace, illustrated on page 219, is proving to be a 
decided innovation over anything heretofore intro- 
duced in the furnace line. 

It has been demonstrated, by both theory and 
practice, that the loss of heat in the best constructed 
ordinary furnaces is equal to 50 per cent, of that 
stored up in good fuel, while in ordinary or inferior 
furnaces the waste is much greater, and is aggravated 
by ignorance in the regulation of the draught. Worn- 
out furnaces, miserably designated grate-bars and 
bridge-walls, were designed and constructed by par- 
ties who did not understand the first requirement of 
such an adjunct of the furnace. 



SAFETY-VALVES. 

The function of a safety-valve is to relieve the 
boiler from extra or increasing pressure in case all 
other avenues of escape are closed. It is designed 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 281 

on the supposition that it will rise, when the pressure 
is equal to the weight on the lever, and discharge the 
steam as fast as it is formed ; even 
then the draught may be wide open, 
the furnace-door closed, and a suf- 
ficient supply of fuel on the grates. 

Many inexperienced persons are led to believe 
that the higher the pressure the larger the safety- 
valve should be. The facts are just the reverse ; for 
pressures varying from 50 to TO pounds per square 
inch, about one-half square inch to the square foot 
of grate surface is the proportion which experience 
has shown to be sufficient, and which has been most 
generally adopted for ordinary pressures ; but if the 
pressure is very high, smaller proportions will answer. 

By looking at table, page 260, it will be seen that 
steam at 50 pounds pressure will escape through an 
orifice into the atmosphere at the rate of 1736 feet 
per second, while at 120 pounds it will escape with 
a velocity of 1900 feet, which goes to show that the 
volume at the latter pressure will be discharged 
through a smaller aperture in a given time than it 
can be at the former pressure. Still, safety-valves 
are generally made of the same proportions for all 
pressures. The weight necessary to carry a certain 
pressure, if a certain length of lever, and also the 
weight on the lever, may be accurately calculated by 
the following rules : 

Rule. — For Finding the Weight Necessary to .^ut 



282 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

on a Lever when the Area of Valve, Pressure, etc., 
are known. — Multiply the area of valve by the press- 
ure in pounds per square inch ; multiply this prod- 
uct by the distance of the valve from the fulcrum. 
Multiply the weight of the lever by one-half of its 
length (or its centre of gravity) ; then multiply the 
weight of valve and stem by their distance from the 
fulcrum, add these last two products together, and 
subtract their sum from the first product, and divide 
the remainder by the length of lever ; the quotient 
will be the weight of the ball. 

Rule. — For Finding the Pressure per square inch 
when the Area of Valve, Weight of Ball, etc., are 
known. — Multiply the weight of ball by length of 
lever, and multiply the weight of lever by one-half 
its length (or its centre of gravity) ; then multiply 
the weight of the valve and stem by its fulcrum ; 
add these three products together ; this sum, divided 
by the product of the area of the valve, and the dis- 
tance from the fulcrum, will give the pressure in 
pounds per square inch. 

INCRUSTATION OF STEAM-BOILERS. 

All waters, whether well, river, spring, or lake, 
contain mineral substances in solution and earthy 
matter in suspension. In fact, no such thing as pure 
water exists, and, strange as it may seem, waters 
best adapted for drinking purposes, and most agree- 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 28? 

rfble to the taste, are the most destructive to steam- 
boilers. Lough, pool, and other stagnant waters are 
generally poisonous, as they contain vegetable and 
animal acids. 

The minerals which form the basis of scale in 
boilers using fresh water, are sulphate of lime, car- 
bonate of lime, magnesia, silica, and alumina, with 
small quantities of sesquioxide of iron, baryta, car- 
bonic acid, organic matter, chlorine, sulphuric acid, 
potassa, calcium, soda, phosphoric acid, and magne- 
sium. 

It is well known that scale or incrustation is a 
powerful non-conductor, and that the waste of fuel is 
in proportion to the thickness of the scale, which 
becomes attached to the shell, flues, tubes, and other 
parts of the boiler. This causes a loss of fuel rang- 
ing from 1 to 37 per cent. 

If waste of fuel were the only evil incident to the 
mismanagement of steam-boilers, it might be toler- 
ated in localities where fuel is abundant and cheap ; 
but other evils result from incrustation, such as the 
burning of the iron, destroying its tensile strength, 
elasticity, and resistance, and rendering it liable to 
explode at any time with disastrous effect. 

If a steam-boiler is expected to render efficient 
service, to be safe and durable, and an easy steam 
generator, certain conditions must invariably be com- 
plied with, viz., it must be intelligently managed, 
carefully fired, not overtaxed, and, above all, kept 



284 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

clean on the inside. This last object is not so easily 
accomplished as may be supposed, and this may be 
illustrated as follows : 

Suppose a boiler has 10,000 gallons of water forced 
into it in 24 hours, which escapes from it in the form 
of vapor or steam ; now if each gallon of this water 
contains only a very few grains of minerals in solu- 
tion, or earthy matter in suspension, it will be seen 
that, under the process of evaporation, the quantity 
of sediment deposited must in process of time be 
enormous. 

Numerous attempts have been made, at different 
times, to remedy the disastrous results caused by- 
incrustation, and a great variety of nostrums have 
been made and sold to steam-users under the heads 
of "compounds," " solutions," "eradicators," "sal- 
amanders," " anti-incrustators," etc., etc., but it has 
been demonstrated that while some of these prepara- 
tions gave temporary relief only, but one of them — 
Lord's Cleansing Compound — has demonstrated the 
utility of chemicals (properly compounded) in reliev- 
ing the boiler of incrustation. 

It was at one time very generally supposed that 
rain, or distilled water, was the best for use in steam- 
boilers. Experiment, however, has shown that such 
is not the fact, as, while it may be admitted that such 
waters do not induce the accumulation of scales, they 
inflict other injuries equally great, because they in- 
duce internal corrosion, pitting, decomposition, and 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 285 

waste of material. It is quite common to find in a 
marine boiler, when distilled water is used, places 
where the material has wasted away two-thirds of 
its thickness, and even the rivet-heads in whole 
seams have disappeared, leaving no margin of safety. 

Chemistry is undoubtedly the source from which 
to seek relief and protection from the disastrous re- 
sults occasioned by the formation of scaly deposits ; 
and, although many of the preparations under this 
head have proven ineffectual in the majority of prac- 
tical tests, yet the fact that Mr. Lord has produced 
a compound which meets every want and anticipation 
of the steam users, not alone in the United States, 
but Canada and Mexico as well, affords ample 
grounds for the assertion that those preparations 
which have failed have done so, not because the sci- 
ence of chemistry is at fault, but to the ignorance of 
their compounders, whose efforts have been defeated 
by a lack of the knowledge of its principles, and the 
requirements needed to secure harmonious action. 

The chemicals entering into any preparation for 
the prevention and removal of incrustation should 
be those which act only in concert with the water, 
and in a perfectly natural way ; first, by softening 
the surface of the formation ; and, second, by impart- 
ing to the water the quality to hold in suspension 
large quantities of earthy matter. 

As the combined action of the chemicals and water 
destroys the cohesion of the scale, the particles are 



286 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER S OWN BOOK. 



caught up and retained in suspension by the water, 
until finally the particles thus disintegrated pass out 
with the water when the boiler is emptied. Lord's 
Compound prevents the formation, and effects the 
removal of scales by this process ; and, although a 
longer time may be necessary by it than by some 
other methods, it is unquestionably the only manner 
that can be safely employed. 

FEED-WATER HEATERS. 

The subject of feed -water heaters has not, until 
within a few years, received that 
attention from manufacturers that 
its importance in an economical 
point of view would entitle it 
to. This is partly due to the fact 
that fuel could be procured at mod- 
erate cost, and years of unbounded 
prosperity in manufacturing pur- 
suits made the owners of steam-en- 
gines careless in the matter of small 
savings, which in the long run 
amount to enormous sums. The 
gain induced by thoroughly heating 
the feed-water before entering the 
boiler may be shown in the follow- 
ing paragraphs : 
Suppose that a pair of boilers are required to fur- 
nish steam to a 100 horse-power engine for 10 hours 




iMim 



The Baningwarith 
Feed-water Heater. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEERS OWN BOOK. 287 

per day for their reasonable life, say fifteen years, 
and that 4 pounds of coal are required per horse- 
power per hour, and we assume 300 working days 
per year, which will be 4500 days for the 15 years, 
and 100 horse-power at 4 pounds per hour is 4000 
pounds of coal per day of 10 hours, and 18,000,000 
pounds for the 15 years ; which at J cent per pound 
is $45,000. Now, supposing 5 per cent, of this can be 
saved, it would induce an economy of $2250. The 
quantity of fuel that can be saved by heating the 
feed-water by the exhaust steam is shown by the 
fact that 1 pound of water must be converted into 
steam to heat 5J pounds of water from a tempera- 
ture of 32° up to 212° Fah. 

From the foregoing it will be seen that, to develop 

100 horse-power at an evaporation of 30 pounds of 

water per horse-power, it will require 3000 pounds 

I per hour, and 30,000 pounds for 10 hours, and to raise 

this water from 32° to 212° it will require 1 pound 

additional for every 5J pounds, which will require 

the evaporation of 5545 pounds of water in excess 

| of what would be needed for 100 horse-power, if the 

i water was heated up to 212° by the exhaust steam 

from the engine. If the boilers evaporate T pounds 

of water from 32° under TO pounds pressure to the 

pound of coal, it will be necessary to evaporate with 

the heater 35,545 pounds of water. This, divided by 

t, gives 50 TT pounds of coal required in this case, 

and with the heater 30,000 pounds of water to be 



288 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



evaporated ; this, divided by 7, gives 4285 pounds 
of coal, a saving of 792 pounds of coal for 100 horse- 
power 10 hours per day, or 
about 15 per cent. 

A feed water heater, to be an 
efficient economizer of fuel, must 
be of ample capacity to permit 
the elevation of the temperature 
of the feed water to at least 200 
degrees prior to its entrance into 
the boiler. Where Lord's Cleans- 
ing Compound is employed for 
preventing or removing incrus- 
tation, the simplest type of 
heater is desirable; i. e., one 
■ without a filtering device, to pre- 
vent the solid matter held in 
suspension in the water from entering the boiler, such 
an arrangement being objectionable from the fact 
that it has a tendency to interfere with the action of 
the compound. 




BADGER HEATER. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



289 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF SAVING OP FUEL EFFECTED 
BY HEATING FEED-WATER, STEAM PRESSURE 60 POUNDS. 



is 

£<2 


INITIAL TEMPERATURE OF FEED-WATER. 


32° 40° 


50° 


60° 


70° 


80° 


90° 


100° 


120° 


140° 


160° 


180° 


200° 


60° 


2.39 1.71 


0.86 























SO 


4.09; 3.43 


2.59 


1.74 


0.88 



















100 


5.79 5.14 


4.32 


3.49 


2.64 


1.77 


0.90 















1O0 


7.50 


6.S5 


6.05 


5.23 


4.40 


3.55 


2.68 


1.80 













140 


9.20 


8.57 


7.77 


6.97 


6.15 


5.32 


4.47 


3.61 


1.84 











IfiO 


10.90 


10.28 


9.50 


8.72 


7.91 


7.09 


6.26 


5.42 


3.67 


1.87 









ISO 


12.60 


12.00 


11.23 


10.46 


9.68 8.87 


8.06 


7.23 


5.52 


3.75 


1.91 







i 


14.30 


13.71 


13.00 


12.20 


11.43 10.65 


9.85 


9.03 


7.36 


5.62 3.82 


1.96 





oo 


16.00 


15.42 14.70 


14.00 


13.19 12.33 


11.64 


10.84 


9.20 7.50 5.73 


3 93 


1.98 


240 


17.79 


17.13 16.42 


15.69 


14.96 . 14.20 


13.43 


12.65 


11.05 9.37 


7.64 


5.90 


3.97 


?60 


19.40 


18.85 18.15 


17.44 


16.7115.97 


15.22 


14.45 11.88 11.24 


9,56 


7.86! 5.96 


?M 


21.10 


20.56il9.87 


19.18 


18.47 117.75 


17.01116.2614.72,13.02 


11.46 


9.73 7.94 


300 


22.88 


22.27 i 21.61 


20.92j20.23 19.52 


18.81 j 18.07 ,16.49 14.99 


13.37 


11.70 9.93 



It will be seen from the above table that if the 
feed- water enters the heater at 32° Fah., and escapes 
to the boiler at 60 D Fah., it would make a saving of 
2.39 per cent. If the feed- water entered the heater 
at 60^ Fah., and was delivered to the boiler at 180° 
Fah., it would make a saving of fuel of 10.46 per 
cent. 

The term initial temperature means the tempera- 
ture at which the feed-water was delivered from the 
pump to the heater, and the term terminal temper- 
ature means the temperature at which the water 
escapes from the heater to the boiler. 
25 T 



290 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE UNITS OF HEAT REQUIRED TO EVAPORATE 
EACH POUND OF FEED-WATER WHEN SUPPLIED TO A 
STEAM-BOILER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND EVAP- 
ORATED UNDER DIFFERENT PRESSURES. 



» ffi -s 


% a 4 








cggg 


& $ <S 


Temperature of feed-water in Fahrenheit degrees. 
















CQ ft 


32° 


35° 


40° 


45° 


50° 


55° 


60° 





212° 


1146.6 


1143 


1138 


1133 


1128 


1123 


1118 


5 


228° 


1151.5 


1149 


1144 


1139 


1134 


1129 


1124 


10 


240° 


1155.3 


1152 


1147 


1142 


1137 


1132 


1127 


15 


250° 


1158.0 


1155 


1150 


1145 


1140 


1135 


1130 


20 


259° 


1161.0 


1158 


1153 


1148 


1143 


1138 


1133 


25 


267° 


1163.3 


1160 


1155 


1150 


1145 


1140 


1135 


30 


274° 


1166.0 


1162 


1157 


1152 


1147 


1142 


1137 


35 


281° 


1167.6 


1164 


1159 


1154 


1149 


1144 


1139 


40 


287° 


1169.0 


1165 


1160 


1156 


1150 


1145 


1141 


45 


292° 


1171.0 


1168 


1163 


1158 


1153 


1148 


1143 


50 


298° 


1173.0 


1170 


1165 


1160 


1155 


1150 


1145 


55 


303° 


1174.0 


1171 


1166 


1161 


1156 


1151 


1146 


60 


308° 


1175.7 


1172 


1167 


1162 


1157 


1152 


1147 


65 


312° 


1177.0 


1174 


1169 


1164 


1159 


1154 


1149 


70 


316° 


1178.0 


1175 


1170 


1165 


1160 


1155 


1150 


75 


321° 


1179.0 


1176 


1171 


1166 


1161 


1156, 


1151 


80 


324° 


1180.5 


1177 


1172 


1167 


1162 


1157 


1152 


85 


328° 


1182.0 


1179 


1174 


1169 


1164 


1159 


1154 


90 


331° 


1182.7 


1180 


1175 


1170 


1165 


1160 


1155 


95 


335° 


1184.0 


1181 


1176 


1171 


1166 


1161 


1156 


100 


338° 


1185.0 


1182 


1177 


1172 


1167 


1162 


1157 


110 


344° 


1186.7 


1184 


1179 


1174 


1165 


1164 


1159 


120 


350° 


1188.6 


1186 


1181 


1176 


1171 


1166 


1161 


130 


356° 


1189.8 


1187 


1182 


1177 


1172 


1167 


1162 


140 


360° 


1191.4 


1189 


1184 


1179 


1174 


1169 


1164 


150 


366° 


1193.5 


1191 


1186 


1181 


1176 


1178 


1166 



1 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



291 



T A B L E— (Continued) 

SHOWING THE UNITS OF HEAT REQUIRED TO EVAPORATE EACH 
POUND OP FEED-WATER WHEN SUPPLIED TO A STEAM- 
BOILER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND EVAPORATED 
UNDER DIFFERENT PRESSURES. 



2m 

8-8 g 
a s £ 

|a| 


■Tag 


Temperature of feed- water in Fahrenheit degrees. 


















OQ.S w 


En's So 


70° 


80° 


90° 


100° 


110° 


120° 


130° 


140° 





212° 


1108 


1098 


1088 


1078 


1068 


1058 


1048 


1038 


5 


228° 


1114 


1104 


1094 


1084 


1074 


1064 


1054 


1045 


10 


240° 


1117 


1107 


1097 


1087 


1077 


1067 


1057 


1047 


15 


250° 


1120 


1110 


1100 


1090 


1080 


1070 


1060 


1050 


20 


259° 


1123 


1113 


1103 


1093 


1083 


1073 


1063 


1053 


25 


267° 


1125 


1115 


1105 


1095 


1085 


1075 


1065 


1055 


30 


274° 


1127 


1117 


1107 


1097 


1087 


1077 


1067 


1057 


35 


281° 


1129 


1119 


1109 


1099 


1089 


1079 


1069 


1059 


40 


287° 


1131 


1121 


1111 


1101 


1091 


1081 


1071 


1061 


45 


292° 


1133 


1123 


1113 


1103 


1093 


1083 


1073 


1063 


50 


298° 


1135 


1125 


1115 


1105 


1095 


1085 


1075 


1065 


55 


303° 


1136 


1126 


1116 


1106 


1096 


1086 


1076 


1066 


60 


308° 


1137 


1127 


1117 


1107 


1097 


1087 


1077 


1067 


65 


312° 


1139 


1129 


1119 


1109 


1099 


1089 


1079 


1069 


70 


316° 


1140 


1130 


1120 


1110 


1100 


1090 


1080 


1070 


75 


321° 


1141 


1131 


1121 


1111 


1101 


1091 


1081 


1071 


80 


324° 


1142 


1132 


1122 


1112 


1102 


1092 


1082 


1072 


85 


328° 


1144 


1134 


1124 


1114 


1104 


1094 


1084 


1074 


90 


331° 


1145 


1135 


1125 


1115 


1105 


1095 


1085 


1075 


95 


335° 


1146 


1136 


1126 


1116 


1106 


1096 


1086 


1076 


100 


338° 


1147 


1137 


1127 


1117 


1107 


1097 


1087 


1077 


110 


344° 


1149 


1139 


1129 


1119 


1109 


1099 


1089 


1079 


120 


350° 


1151 


1141 


1131 


1121 


1111 


1101 


1091 


1081 


130 


356° 


1152 


1142 


1132 


1122 


1112 


1102 


1092 


1082 


140 


360° 


1154 


1144 


1134 


1124 


1114 


1104 


1094 


1084 


150 


366° 1156 


1146 


1136 


1126 


1116 


1106 


1096 


1086 



292 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABL E— {Continued) 
8H OWING THE UNITS OP HEAT REQUIRED TO EVAPORATB 
EACH POUND OP FEED-WATER WHEN SUPPLIED TO A 
STEAM-BOILER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND 
EVAPORATED UNDER DIFFERENT PRESSURES. 



Ill 
Sol 


£°3 


Temperature of feed-water in Fahrenheit degrees. 


150° 


160° 


170° 


180° 


190° 


200° 


210° 


212° 





212° 


1028 


1018 


1008 


998 


988 


978 


968 


966 


5 


228° 


1034 


1024 


1014 


1004 


994 


984 


974 


972 


10 


240° 


1037 


1027 


1017 


1007 


997 


987 


977 


975 


15 


250° 


1040 


1030 


1020 


1010 


1000 


990 


980 


978 


20 


259° 


1043 


1033 


1023 


1013 


1003 


993 


983 


981 


25 


267° 


1045 


1035 


1025 


1015 


1005 


995 


985 


983 


30 


274° 


1047 


1037 


1027 


1017 


1007 


997 


987 


985 


35 


281° 


1049 


1039 


1029 


1019 


1009 


999 


989 


987 


40 


287° 


1051 


1041 


1031 


1021 


1011 


1001 


991 


989 


45 


292° 


1053 


1043 


1033 


1023 


1013 


1003 


993 


991 


50 


298° 


1055 


1045 


1035 


1025 


1015 


1005 


995 


993 


55 


303° 


1056 


1046 


1036 


1026 


1016 


1006 


996 


994 


60 


308° 


1057 


1047 


1037 


1027 


1017 


1007 


997 


995 


65 


312° 


1059 


1049 


1039 


1029 


1019 


1009 


999 


997 


70 


316° 


1060 


1050 


1040 


1030 


1020 


1010 


1000 


998 


75 


321° 


1061 


1051 


1041 


1031 


1021 


1011 


1001 


999 


80 


324° 


1062 


1052 


1042 


1032 


1022 


1012 


1002 


1000 


85 


328° 


1064 


1054 


1044 


1034 


1024 


1014 


1004 


1002 


90 


331° 


1065 


1055 


1045 


1035 


1025 


1015 


1005 


1003 


95 


335° 


1066 


1056 


1046 


1036 


1026 


1016 


1006 


1004 


100 


338° 


1067 


1057 


1047 


1037 


1027 


1017 


1007 


1005 


110 


344° 


1069 


1059 


1049 


1039 


1029 


1019 


1009 


1007 


120 


350° 


1071 


1061 


1051 


1041 


1031 


1021 


1010 


1008 


130 


356° 


1072 


1062 


1052 


1042 


1032 


1022 


1012 


1010 


140 


360° 


1074 


1064 


1054 


1044 


1034 


1024 


1014 


1012 


150 


366° 


1076 


1066 


1056 


1046 


1036 


1026 


1016 1014 






j 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 293 



THE CIRCLE. 



□ 



A circular vessel will contain a greater quantity 
than a vessel of any other shape, made of 
the same amount of material. 

The diameter of a circle is a straight 
line through its centre, touching both 
sides. 

The radius of a circle is half its diam- 
eter. 

The areas of circles are to each other 
as the squares of their diameters. 

The diameter of a circle being 1, its 
circumference equals 3.1416. 

The diameter of a circle is equal to 
.31831 of its circumference. 

The square of the diameter of a circle 
being 1, its area equals .7854. 

To find the area of any circle, multiply 
the diameter by itself and the quotient 
by .7854, the product will be the area of the circle, 

The capacity of any other cylinder, in United 
States gallons, may be found by multiplying the 
square of its diameter, in inches, by its length in 
inches, and dividing by 1728 ; the result will be the 
contents in cubic feet, which is multiplied by 7.5, and 
will give the quantity in United States gallons 
25* 




294 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE DIAMETER AND AREAS OP CIRCLES FROM 0.10 
TO 1.00 INCH, ADVANCING BY .005. 

1 



a 

at 
3 


i 


a 

cS 

5 


eg 

< 


a 

s 


eS 

•51 


1 

s 


i 

< 


0.10 


.007854 


0.330 


.085530 


0.560 


.246301 


0.790 


.490167 


0.105 


.008659 


0.335 


.088141 


0.565 


.250719 


0.795 


.496391 


0.110 


.009503 


0.340 


.090792 


0.570 


.255176 


0.800 


.502655 


0.115 


.010387 


0.345 


.093482 


0.575 


.259672 


0.805 


.508958 


0.120 


.011310 


0.350 


.096211 


0.580 


.264208 


0.810 


.515299 


0.125 


.012272 


0.355 


.098980 


0.585 


.268783 


0.815 


.521681 


0.130 


.013273 


0.3P0 


.101788 


0.590 


.273397 


0.820 


.528102 


0.135 


.014314 


0.365 


.104635 


0.595 


.278051 


0.825 


.534562 


0.140 


.015394 


0.370 


.107521 


0.600 


.282743 


0.830 


.541061 


0.145 


.016513 


0.375 


.110447 


0.605 


.287475 


0.835 


.547600 


0.150 


.017671 


0.380 


.113411 


0.610 


.292247 


0.840 


.554177 


0.155 


.018869 


0.385 


.116416 


0.615 


297057 


0.845 


.560794 


0.160 


.020106 


0.390 


.119459 


0.620 


.301907 


0.850 


.567451 


0.165 


.021382 


0.395 


.122542 


0.625 


.306796 


0.855 


.574146 


0.170 


.022698 


0.400 


.125664 


0.630 


.311725 


0.860 


.580881 


0.175 


.024053 


0.405 


.128825 


0.635 


.316692 


0.865 


.587655 


0.180 


.025447 


0.410 


.132025 


0.640 


.321699 


0.870 


.594468 


0.185 


.026880 


0.415 


.135265 


0.645 


.326745 


0.875 


.601321 


0.190 


.028353 


0.420 


.138544 


0.650 


.33183 L 


0.880 


.608212 


0.195 


.029865 


0.425 


.141863 


0.655 


.336955 


0.885 


.615144 


0.200 


.031416 


0.430 


.145220 


0.660 


.342119 


0.890 


.622114 


0.205 


.033006 


0.435 


.148617 


0.665 


.347323 


0.895 


.629124 


0.210 


.034636 


0.440 


.152053 


0.670 


.352565 


0.900 


.636173 


0.215 


.036305 


0.445 


.155529 


0.675 


.357847 


0.905 


.643261 


0.220 


.038013 


0.450 


.159043 


0.680 


.363168 


0.910 


.650389 


0.225 


.039761 


0.455 


.162597 


0.685 


.368528 


0.915 


.657556 


0.230 


.041548 


0.460 


.166191 


0.690 


.373928 


0.920 


.664762 


0.235 


.043374 


0.465 


.169823 


0.695 


.379367 


0.925 


.672007 


0.240 


.045239 


0.470 


.173494 


0.700 


.384845 


0.930 


.679292 


0.245 


.047144 


0.475 


.177205 


0-705 


.390363 


0.935 


.686615 


0.250 


.049087 


0.480 


.180956 


0.710 


.395919 


0.940 


.693978 


0.255 


.051071 


0.485 


.184745 


0.715 


,401515 


0.945 


.701381 


0.260 


.053093 


0.490 


.188574 


0.720 


.407150 


0.950 


.708822 


0.265 


.055155 


0.495 


.192442 


0.725 


.412825 


0.955 


.716303 


0.270 


.057256 


0.500 


.196350 


0.730 


.418539 


0.960 


.723823 


0.275 


.059396 


0.505 


.200296 


0.735 


.424292 


0.965 


.731382 


0.280 


.061575 


0.510 


.204282 


0.740 


.430084 


0.970 


.738981 


285 


.063794 


0.515 


.208307 


0.745 


.435916 


0.975 


.746619 


0.290 


.066052 


0.520 


.212372 


0.750 


.441787 


0.980 


.754297 


0.295 


068349 


0.525 


.216475 


0.755 


.447697 


0.985 


.762013 


0.300 


.070686 


0.530 


.220618 


0.760 


.453646 


0.990 


.769769 


0.305 


.073062 


0.535 


.224801 


0.765 


.459635 


0.995 


.777564 


0.310 


.075477 


0.540 


.229023 


0.770 


.465663 


1.000 


.785398 


0.315 


.077931 


0.545 


.233283 


0.775 


.471729 


1.128 


999227 


0.320 


.080425 


0.550 


.237583 


0.780 


.477836 






0.325 
t- 


.082958 


0,555 


.241922 


0.785 


483983 







THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



295 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE DIAMETER AND CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES 
FROM TO | OF AN INCH, ADVANCING BY EIGHTHS. 



a 

s 


.0 


-t 


■* 


•1 


l 
•2" 


•1 


•1 


7 





.0 


.3927 


.7854 


1.178 


1.570 


1.963 


2.356 


2.74S 


l 


3.141 


3.534 


3.927 


4.319 


4.712 


5.105 


5.497 


5.890 


2 


6.283 


6.675 


7.068 


7.461 


7.854 


8.246 


8.639 


9.032 


3 


9.424 


9.817 


10.21 


10.60 


10.99 


11.38 


11.78 


12.17 


4 


12.56 


12.95 


13.35 


13.74 


14.13 


14.52 


14.92 


15.31 


5 


15.70 


16.10 


16.49 


16.88 


17.27 


17.67 


18.06 


18.45 


6 


18.84 


19.24 


19.63 


20.02 


20.42 


20.81 


21.20 


21.59 


7 


21.99 


22.38 


22.77 


23.16 


23.56 


23.95 


24.34 


24.74 


8 


25.13 


25.52 


25.91 


26.31 


26.70 


27.09 


27.48 


27.88 


9 


28.27 


28.66 


29.05 


29.45 


29.84 


30.23 


30.63 


31.02 


10 


31.41 


31.80 


32.20 


32.59 


32.98 


33.37 


33.77 


34.16 


11 


34.55 


34.95 


35.34 


35.73 


36.12 


36.52 


36.91 


37.30 


12 


37.69 


38.09 


38.48 


38.87 


39.27 


39.66 


40.05 


40.44 


13 


40 84 


41.23 


41.62 


42.01 


42.41 


42.80 


43.19 


43.58 


14 


43.98 


44.37 


44.76 


45.16 


45.55 


45.94 


46.33 


46.73 


15 


47.12 


47.51 


47.90 


48.30 


48.69 


49.08 


49.48 


49.87 


16 


50.26 


50.65 


51.05 


51.44 


51.83 


52.22 


52.62 


53.01 


: 17 


53.40 


53.79 


54.19 


54.58 


54.97 


55.37 


55.76 


56.15 


18 


56.54 


56.94 


57.33 


57 72 


58.11 


58.51 


58.90 


59.29 


19 


59.69 


60.08 


60.47 


60^86 


61.26 


61.65 


62.04 


62.43 


20 


62.83 


63.22 


63.61 


64.01 


64.40 


64.79 


65.18 


65.58 


21 


65.97 


66.36 


66.75 


67.15 


67.54 


67.93 


68.32 


68.72 


22 


69.11 


69.50 


69.90 


70.29 


70.68 


71.07 


71.47 


71.86 


23 


72.25 


72.64 


73.04 


73.43 


73.82 


74.22 


74.61 


75.00 


24 


75.39 


75.79 


76.18 


76.57 


76.96 


77.36 


77.75 


78.14 


25 


78.54 


78.93 


79.32 


79.71 


80.10 


80.50 


80.89 


81.28 


26 


81.68 


82.07 


82.46 


82.85 


83.25 


83.64 


84.03 


84.43 


27 


84.82 


85.21 


85.60 


86.00 


86.39 


86.78 


87.17 


87.57 


28 


87.96 


88.35 


88.75 


89.14 


89.53 


89.92 


90.32 


90.71 


. 29 


91.10 


91.49 


91.89 


92.28 


92.67 


93.06 


93.46 


93.85 


30 


94.24 


94.64 


95.03 


95.42 


95.81 


96.21 


96.60 


96.99 


31 


97.39 


97.78 


98.17 


98.57 


98.96 


99.35 


99.75 


100.14 


32 


100.53 


100.92 


101.32 


101.71 


102.10 


102.49 


102.89 


103.29 


33 


103.67 


104.07 


104.46 


104.85 


105.24 


105.64 


106.03 


106.42 


! 34 


106.81 


107.21 


107.60 


107.99 


108.39 


108.78 


109.17 


109.56 


1 35 


109.96 


110.35 


110.74 


111.13 


111.53 


111.92 


112.31 


112.71 


l 36 


113.10 


113.49 


113.88 


114.28 


114.67 


115.06 


115.45 


115.85 


37 


116.24 


116.63 


117.02 


117.42 


117.81 


118.20 


118.60 


118.99 


38 


119.38 


119.77 


120.17 


120.56 


120.95 


121.34 


121.74 


122.13 


39 


122.52 


122.92 


123.31 


123.70 


124.09 


124.49 


124.88 


125.27 


1 40 


125.66 


126.06 


126.45 


126.84 


127.24 


127.63 


128.02 


128.41 


41 


128.81 


129.20 


127.59 


129.98 


130.38 


130.77 


131.16 


131.55 


42 


131.95 


132.34 


132.73 


133.13 


133.52 


133.91 


134.30 


134.70 


43 


135.09 


135.48 


135.87 


136.27 


136.66 


137.05 


137.45 


137.84 


44 


138.23 


138.62 


139.02 


139.41 


139.80 


140.19 


140.59 


140.98 


45 


141.37 


141.76 


142.16 


142.55 


142.94 


143.34 


143.73 


144.12 



296 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 

OF DIAMETERS AND AREAS OP CIRCLES FROM TO f OF AH 
INCH, ADVANCING FROM -g-. 



g 

s 


.0 


.* 


•i 


•1 


•i 


•1 


3 

•4 


7 





.0 


.0122 


.0490 


.1104 


.1963 


.3068 


.4417 


.6013 


i 


.7854 


.9940 


1.227 


1.484 


1.767 


2.073 


2.405 


2.761 


2 


3.1416 


3.546 


3.976 


4.430 


4.908 


5.411 


5.939 


6.491 


3 


7.068 


7.669 


8.295 


8.946 


9.621 


10.32 


11.04 


11.79 


4 


12.56 


13.36 


14.18 


15.03 


15.90 


16.80 


17.72 


18.66 


5 


19.63 


20.62 


21.64 


22.69 


23.75 


24.85 


25.96 


27.10 


6 


28.27 


29.46 


30.67 


31.91 


33.18 


34.47 


35.78 


37.12 


7 


38.48 


39.87 


41.28 


42.71 


44.17 


45.66 


47.17 


48.70 


8 


50.26 


51.84 


53.45 


55.08 


56.74 


58.42 


60.13 


61.86 


9 


63.61 


65.39 


67.20 


69.02 


70.88 


72.75 


74.66 


76.58 


10 


78.54 


80.51 


82.51 


84.54 


86.59 


88.66 


90.76 


92.88 


11 


95.03 


97.20 


99.40 


101.6 


103.8 


106.1 


108.4 


110.7 


12 


113.0 


115.4 


117.8 


120.2 


122.7 


125.1 


127.6 


130.1 


13 


132.7 


135.2 


137.8 


140.5 


143.1 


145.8 


148.4 


151.2 


14 


153.9 


156.6 


159.4 


162.2 


165.1 


167.9 


170.8 


173.7 


15 


176.7 


179.6 


182.6 


185.6 


188.6 


191.7 


194.8 


197.9 


16 


201.0 


204.2 


207.3 


210.5 


213.8 


217.0 


220.3 


223.6 


17 


226.9 


230.3 


233.7 


237.1 


240.5 


243.9 


247.4 


250.9 


18 


254.4 


258.0 


261.5 


265.1 


268.8 


272.4 


276.1 


279.8 


19 


283.5 


287.2 


291.0 


294.8 


298.6 


302.4 


306.3 


310.2 


20 


314.1 


318.1 


322.0 


326.0 


330.0 


334.1 


338.1 


342.2 


21 


346.3 


350.4 


354.6 


358.8 


363.0 


367.2 


371.5 


375.8 


22 


380.1 


384.4 


388.8 


393.2 


397.6 


402.0 


406.4 


410.9 


23 


415.4 


420.0 


424.5 


429.1 


433.7 


438.3 


443.0 


447.6 


24 


452.3 


457.1 


461.8 


466.6 


471.4 


476.2 


481.1 


485.9 


25 


490.8 


495.7 


500.7 


505.7 


510.7 


515.7 


520.7 


525.8 


26 


530.9 


536.0 


541.1 


546.3 


551.5 


556.7 


562.0 


567.2 


27 


572.5 


577.8 


583.2 


588.5 


593.9 


599.3 


604.8 


610.2 


28 


615.7 


621.2 


626.7 


632.3 


637.9 


643.5 


649.1 


654.8 


29 


660.5 


666.2 


671.9 


677.7 


683.4 


689.2 


695.1 


700.9 


30 


706.8 


712.7 


718.6 


724.6 


730.6 


736.6 


742.6 


748.6 


31 


754.8 


760.9 


767.0 


773.1 


779.3 


785.5 


791.7 


798.0 


32 


804.3 


810.6 


816.9 


823.2 


829.6 


836.0 


842,4 


848.8 


33 


855.3 


861.8 


868.3 


874.9 


881.4 


888.0 


894.6 


901.3 


34 


907.9 


914.7 


921.3 


928.1 


934.8 


941.6 


948.4 


955.3 


35 


962.1 


969.0 


975.9 


982.8 


989.8 


996.8 


1003.8 


1010 8 


36 


1017.9 


1025.0 


1032.1 


1039.2 


1046.3 


1053.5 


1060.7 


1068.0 


37 


1075.2 


1082.5 


1089.8 


1097.1 


1104.5 


1111.8 


1119.2 


1126.7 


38 


1131.1 


1141.6 


1149.1 


1156.6 


1164.2 


1171.7 


1179.3 


1186.9 


39 


1194.6 


1202.3 


1210.0 


1217.7 


1225.4 


1233.2 


1241.0 


1248.8 


40 


1256.6 


1264.5 


1272.4 


1280.3 


1288.2 


1296.2 


1304.2 


1312.2 


41 


1320.3 


1328.3 


1336.4 


1344.5 


1352.7 


1360.8 


1369.0 


1377.2 


42 


1385.4 


1393.7 


1402.0 


1410.3 


1418.6 


1427.0 


1435.4 


1443.8 


43 


1452.2 


1460.7 


1469.1 


1477.6 


1486.2 


1494.7 


1503.3 


1511.9 


44 


1520.5 


1529.2 


1537.9 


1546.6 


1555.3 


1564.0 


1572.8 


1581.6 


45 

> 


1590.4 


1599.3 


1608.2 


1617.0 


1626.0 


1634.9 


1643.9 


1652.9 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



29? 



TABLE 



O? DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND 


AREAS OF 


CIRCLES 


FROM T V OF 


AN INCH TO 25 INCHES. 


Diam. 


Circnm. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Area. 


Inch. 






Inch. 






Inch. 






A 


.1963 


.0030 


A 


7.6576 


4.6664 


if 


15.1189 


18.1900 


£ 


.3927 


.0122 


i 


7.8540 


4.9087 


¥ 


15.3153 


18.6655 


A 


.5890 


.0276 


A 


8.0503 


5.1573 


If 


15.5716 


19.1472 


¥ 


.7854 


.0490 


* 


8.2467 


5.4119 


5 


15.7080 


19.6350 


t 


.9817 


.0767 


f 


8.4430 


5.6727 


A 


15.9043 


20.1290 


1.1781 


.1104 


8.6394 


5.9395 


¥ 


16.1007 


20.6290 


f 


1.3744 


.1503 


it 


8.8357 


6.2126 


A 


16.2970 


21.1252 


1.5708 


.1963 


i 


9.0321 


6.4918 


f 


16.4934 


21.6475 


A 


1.7671 


.2485 


if 


9.2284 


6.7772 


f 


16.6897 


22.1661 


% 


1.9635 


.3068 


3 


9.4248 


7.0686 


16.8861 


22.6907 


H 


2.1598 


.3712 


t 


9.6211 


7.3662 


A 


17.0824 


23.2215 


1 


2.3562 


.4417 


9.8175 


7.6699 


¥ 


17.2788 


23.7583 


it 


2.5525 


.5185 


A 


10.0138 


7.9798 


f 


17.4751 


24.3014 


i 


2.7489 


.6013 


i 


10.2120 


8.2957 


17.6715 


24.8505 


if 


2.9452 


.6903 


A 


10.4065 


8.6179 


H 


17.8678 


25.4058 


T 


3.1416 


.7854 


f 


10.6029 


8.9462 


i 


18.0642 


25.9672 


A 


3.3379 


.8861 


A 


10.7992 


9.2806 


it 


18.2605 


26.5348 


¥ 


3.5343 


.9940 


¥ 


10.9956 


9.6211 


£ 


18.4569 


27.1085 


A 


3.7306 


1.1075 


A 


11.1919 


9.9678 


if 


18.6532 


27.6884 


¥ 


3.9270 


1.2271 


* 


11.3883 


10.3206 


6 


18.8496 


28.2744 


f 


4.1233 


1.3529 


tt 


11.5846 


10.6796 


A 


19.0459 


28.8665 


4.3197 


1.4848 


i 


11.7810 


11.0446 


¥ 


19.2423 


29.4647 


* 


4.5160 


1.6229 


it 


11.9773 


11.4159 


f 


19.4386 


30.0798 


4.7124 


1.7671 


i 


12.1737 


11.7932 


19.6350 


30.6796 


A 


4.9087 


1.9175 


if 


12.3700 


12.1768 


A 


19.8313 


31.2964 


* 


5.1051 


2.0739 


4 


12.5664 


12.5664 


1 


20.0277 


31.9192 


H 


5.3014 


2.2365 


A 


12.7627 


12.9622 


A 


20.2240 


32.5481 


1 


5.4978 


2.4052 


4 


12.9591 


13.3640 


X. 


20.4204 


33.1831 


H 


5.6941 


2.5801 


A 


13.1554 


13.7721 


A 


20.6167 


33.8244 


% 


5.8905 


2.7611 


i 


13.3518 


14.1862 


1 


20.8131 


34.4717 


n 


6.0868 


2.9483 


A 


13.5481 


14.6066 


H 


21.0094 


35.1252 


2 


6.2832 


3.1416 


1 


13.7445 


15.0331 


1 


21.2058 


35.7847 


iV 


6.4795 


3.3411 


A 


13.9408 


15.4657 


if 


21.4021 


36.4505 


JL 


6.6759 


3.5465 


i 


14.1372 


15.9043 


i 


21.5985 


37.1224 


A 


6.8722 


3.7582 


A 


14.3335 


16.3492 


if 


21.7948 


37.8005 


i- 


7.0686 


3.9760 


t 


14.5299 


16.8001 


7 


21.9912 


38.4846 


A 


7.2640 


4.2001 


f 


14.7262 


17.2573 


A 


22.1875 


39.1749 


1 7.4613 
f 


4.4302 


14.9226 


17.7205 


4 


22.3839 


39.8713 

i 



298 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 







TABL E— (Continued.) 




Dian, 


Circum. 


Area. 


Dian, 


Circum. 


Area. 


Inch. 






Inch. 






ft 


22.5802 


40.5469 


4 


30.6306 


74.6620 


A 


22.7766 


41.2825 


30.8269 


75.6223 


22.9729 


41.9974 


1 


31.0233 


76.5887 


1 


23.1693 


42.7184 


» 


31.2196 


77.5613 


ft 


23.3656 


43.4455 


31.4160 


78.5400 


\ 


23.5620 


44.1787 


i 


31.8087 


80.5157 


f 


23.7583 


44.9181 




32.2014 


82.5160 


23.9547 


45.6636 


| 


32.5941 


84.5409 


tt 


24.1510 


46.4153 


i 


32.9868 


86.5903 


1 


24.3474 


47.1730 


1 


33.3795 


88.6643 


tt 


24.5437 


47.9370 


1 


33.7722 


90.7627 


1 


24.7401 


48.7070 


i 


34.1649 


92.8858 


H 


24.9364 


49.4833 


11 


34.5576 


95.0334 


8 


25.1328 


50.2656 


i 


34.9503 


97.2053 


A 


25.3291 


51.0541 


I 


35.3430 


99.4021 


4 


25.5255 


51.8486 




35.7357 


101.6234 


25.7218 


52.8994 


\ 


36.1284 


103.8691 


A 


25.9182 


53.4562 


f 


36.5211 


106.1394 


26.1145 


54.2748 


1 


36.9138 


108.4342 


I 


26.3109 


55.0885 


f 


37.3065 


110.7536 


26.5072 


55.9138 


12 


. 37.6992 


113.0976 


* 


26.7036 


56.7451 


\ 


38.0919 


115.4660 


ft 


26.8999 


57.5887 


\ 


38.4846 


117.8590 


1 


27.0963 


58.4264 


| 


38.8773 


120.2766 


tt 


27.2926 


59.7762 


\ 


39.2700 


122.7187 


1 


27.4890 


60.1321 


1 


39.6627 


125.1854 


« 


27.6853 


60.9943 


1 


40.0554 


127.6765 


} 


27.8817 


61.8625 


I 


40.4481 


130.1923 


» 


28.0780 


62.7369 


13 


40.8408 


132.7326 


9 


28.2744 


63.6174 


\ 


41.2338 


135.2974 


ft 


28.4707 


64.5041 




41.6262 


137.8867 


A 


28.6671 


65.3968 


| 


42.0189 


140.5007 


28.8634 


66.2957 


\ 


42.4116 


143.1391 


4 


29.0598 


67.2007 


•| 


42.8043 


145.8021 


29.2561 


68.1120 


| 


43.1970 


148.4896 


t 


29.4525 


69.0293 


| 


43.5897 


151.2017 


ft 


29.6488 


69.9528 


14 


43.9824 


153.9384 


A 


29.8452 


70.8823 


\ 


44.3751 


156.6995 


30.0415 


71.8181 


J 


44.7676 


159.4852 


1 


30.2379 


72.7599 


45.1605 


162.2956 


H 


30.4342 


73.7079 


\ 


45.5532 


165.1303 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOH. 



299 



TABL E— (Continued.) 



45.9459 
46.3386 
46.7313 
47.1240 
47.5167 
47.9094 
48.3021 
48.6948 
49.0875 
49.4802 
49.8729 
50.2656 
50.6583 
51.0510 
51.4437 
51.8364 
52.2291 
52.6218 
53.0145 
53.4072 
53.7999 
54.1926 
54.5853 
54.9780 
55.3707 
55.7634 
56.1561 
56.5488 
56.9415 
57.3342 
57.7269 
58.1196 



167.9896 
170.8735 
173.7820 
176.7150 
179.6725 
182.6545 
185.6612 
188.6923 
191.7480 
194.8282 
197.9330 
201.0624 
204.2162 
207.3946 
210.5976 
213.8251 
217.0772 
220.3537 
223.6549 
226.9806 
230.3308 
233.7055 
237.1049 
240.5287 
243.9771 
247.4500 
250.9475 
254.4696 
258.0161 
261.5872 
265.1829 
268.8031 



Diam. Circum. 



69.1150 
69.9004 
70.6858 
71.4712 
72.2566 
73.0420 
73.8274 
74.6128 
75.3982 
76.1836 
76.9690 
77.7544 
78.5398 



272.4479 

276.1171 

279.8110 

283.5294 

287.2723 

291.0397 

294.8312 

298.6483 

302.4894 

306.3550 

310.2452 

314.1600 

322.06 

330.06 

338.16 

346.36 

354.66 

363.05 

371.54 

380.13 

388.82 

397.61 

406.49 

415.88 

424.56 

433.74 

443.01 

452.39 

461.86 

471.44 

481.11 

490.87 



The area of any circle larger than those in the 
table may be obtained by squaring the diameter and 
multiplying the product by .7854. 

Example. — 20x20 equals 400, which, multiplied 
by .7854, gives 314.16 



300 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

STANDARD UNITS 

ADOPTED IN THIS COUNTRY AND ENGLAND. 

The unit of capacity adopted in this country and 
England is the cubit foot, pint, and gallon. 

The unit of heat recognized in this country is the 
amount required to raise one pound of water 1° Eah., 
or from 32° to 33° Fah. 

The unit of length recognized in this country and 
England is the yard, foot, and inch. 

The unit of pressure, as adopted in this country 
and England, is that of the atmosphere at sea-level 
with the barometer at 30 inches of mercury. 

The unit of surface employed in this country and 
England is the square foot, yard, and inch. 

The unit of time is the same in all civilized coun- 
tries — the second, minute, and hour. 

The unit of duration is the twenty-fourth part of a 
solar day, and is called an hour, and contains 60 min- 
utes, which is again divided into 60 seconds. 

The unit of velocity differs slightly with different 
scientific authorities, and in different countries, but 
in the case of some falling bodies, projectiles, etc., 
which is generally expressed in feet per second, and 
in light and electricity, miles, etc. 

The unit of weight is recognized in this country 
and England as the pound. 

The unit of work recognized in this country and 
England is the foot-pound, which is the force neces- 
sary to raise one ^ound one foot. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



301 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES 

PER CUBIC FOOT. 

Specific Weight 

Gravity. per cu. ft 

Water at 62° Fah 1.000 62.321 

Platinum ... . 21.522 1342.000 

Gold . 19.425 1205.000 

Mercury .... . 13.596 848.750 

Lead ... . . 11.418 712.000 

Silver 10.505 655.000 

Bismuth 9.900 616.978 

Copper, hammered .... 8.917 556.000 

" sheet 8.805 549.000 

" cast 8.600 537.000 

Gun metal, 84 copper, 16 tin . ■ . 8.560 533.468 

83 " 17 " . 8.460 527.235 

Nickel, hammered .... 8.670 540.223 

" cast 8.280 516.018 

Bearing metal, 79 copper, 21 tin . . 8.730 544.062 

Brass, wire 8.540 533.000 

" cast, 75 copper, 25 zinc . . 8.450 526.612 

" " 66 " 34 " . . 8.300 517.264 

" " 60 " 40 " . . 8.200 511.032 

Bronze 8.400 524.000 

Steel 7.852 490.000 

Iron, wrought, average . . . 7.698 480.000 

" cast 7.110 444.000 

Zinc, sheet 7.200 449.000 

" cast .....*. 6.860 424.000 

Tin . \ . . . . . . 7.409 462.000 

Antimony 6.710 418.174 

Iron ores j 5 ' 251 j 327 ' 247 

13.829 1238.627 
26 



302 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

TABL E— (Continued) 
SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC. 

Specific Weight 

Gravity. per cu. ft 

Aluminum, cast . ... 2.560 159.542 

Manganese 8.00 498.568 

Basalt . . ... 3.00 187.000 

Glass, flint 3.00 187.000 

" plate 2.70 169.000 

Marble ...... A 2M { 176 " 991 

1 2.52 1 157.049 

Granite { 3 f j 190 ' 702 

( 2.36 1 147,077 

Soapstone, steatite . . . . 2.73 140.000 

Flint .... . . 2.63 164.200 

Feldspar. ... . 2.60 162.300 

Limestone P* |™ 

1 2.7 1 169.000 

2.90 f 181.000 

2.80 \ 175.000 

Trap rock 2.72 170.000 

Quartz j 1 ' 26 { 78 " 524 

H 12.65 1165.000 

Shale 2.60 162.000 

Sandstone, average . . . 2.30 144.000 

Gypsum, plaster of Paris . . . 2.30 144.000 



Slate . . A 



30 f 144.000 

85 U 16.000 



f 2 ' 
Masonry . . . • . A " 

Graphite . . . . . . 2.20 137.106 

Brick . . .j 



2.167 / 135.000 
2.000 '1 125.000 



r 2.78 { 174.000 
1 1.87 1 117.000 
Clay 1.92 120.000 



Chalk .... . .{^ 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



303 




TABL JZ-iContinued) 
SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GEAVITY, ETC 
Specific 

Sand, damp J! 

" dry j 
Sulphur 

Marl 

Mud 

Coal, anthracite 

" bituminous 

Coke, dry, loose, average 
Scoria .... 
Cement, Amer., Eosendale, loose . 

" well shaken, . 
thor'ly shaken . 
" struck bushel, 75 pounds 

Acid, sulphuric 1.840 

" nitric 1.220 

" acetic 1.080 

Milk 1.030 

Sea water . . . . . . 1.026 

Linseed oil 0.940 

Sperm oil 0.923 

Olive oil 0.915 

Alcohol, proof spirit .... 0.920 

" pure 0.791 

Petroleum . ... 0.878 

Turpentine oil 0.870 

Naphtha 0.848 

Ether 0.716 

Ash .'..,... 0.753 



Weight 

per cu. ft. 

118.000 

88.600 

125.000 

(119.000 

(100.000 

102.000 

100.000 

(89.900 

(77.400 

28.000 

51.726 

60.000 

70.000 

80.000 

114.670 
76.031 
67.306 
64.100 
64.050 
58.680 
57.620 
57.120 
57.335 
49.380 
54.810 
54.310 
52.940 
44.700 
47.0 



304 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

TABL E— {Continued) 
SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC 

Specific Weight 

Gravity. per cu. ft 

Bamboo . . . . . . . 0.400 25.0 

Beech 0.690 43.0 

Birch 0.711 44.4 

Blue gum 0.834 52.5 

Boxwood 0.960 60.0 

Cedar of Lebanon .... 0.486 30.4 

Cherry, dry 0.672 42.0 

Chestnut 0.535 33.4 

Cork ... ... 0.250 15.6 

Ebony, West India .... 1.193 74.5 

Elm 0.544 34.0 

Greenheart 1.001 62.5 

Hawthorn 0.910 57.0 

Hazel ... ... 0.860 54.0 

Hemlock, dry . ... 0.400 25.0 

Holly . . .... 0.760 47.0 

Hickory 0.850 53.0 

Hornbeam 0.760 47.0 

Laburnum 0.920 . 57.0 

T , / 1.010 (63.0 

LanCeW00d i 0.675 142.0 

T . ., / 1.330 J 83.0 

Lignum vita, . . . .{^ { ^ 

Locust 0.710 44.0 

Mahogany, Honduras .... 0.560 35.0 

Spanish . . . . 0.850 53.0 

Maple 0.790 49.0 

Oak, live, dry 0.950 59.3 

" white, dry 0.830 51.8 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 305 

TABL E— {Continued) 
SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC 

Specific Weight 

Gravity. per cu. ft 

Pine, white, dry 0.400 25.0 

" yellow, dry ..... 0.550 34.3 

" Southern, dry .... 0.720 45.0 

Sycamore . . 0.590 37.0 

m , T ,. $0,880 $55.0 

Teak, Indian ... . Z < 

I 0.660 * 41.0 

Water gum 1.001 62.5 

Walnut . • . , 0.610 38.0 

Willow . . ... . , . 0.400 25.0 

Yew 0.800 50.0 

Ivory 1.82 114.000 

India rubber 0.92 58.000 

Lard .... ... 0.95 59.000 

Gutta-percha 0.98 61.100 

Beeswax 0.97 60.500 

Turf, dry, loose 0.401 25.000 

Pitch ...... . 1.15 71.700 

Fat . 0.93 58.000 

Tallow 0.936 58.396 

Gases. 

Weight per cubic foot at 32° Fah., and under pressure 
of one atmosphere . 

Air .... .... 0.080728 

Carbonic acid 0.12344 

Hydrogen . 0.005592 

Oxygen 0.089256 

Nitrogen 0.078596 

Steam (ideal), Eankine 0.05022 

Vapor of ether, Eankine (ideal) . . . 0.2093 

" bi-sulphide of carbon, Eankine . . 0.2137 

Oleflant gas (marsh gas) 0.0795 

26* U 



306 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS 
SUBSTANCES. 









Weights. 


IS 

02 tUD 


Name of Substance. 


Per cu. 
foot. 


Per sq.ft., 
1 inch 
thick. 


Per cu. 
inch. 


Water, pure . 
" sea . 
Wrought-iron . 
Cast-iron 

Steel .... 
Lead . 

Copper, rolled . 
Brass " 
Sand 
Clay . 

Brickwork, common 
" close join 
Limestone . 
Glass . 
Pine, white . 
" yellow 
Hemlock 
Maple . 
Oak, white . 
Walnut. . . 


ts 




62.3 

64.3 
480 
450 
490 
710 
548 
524 

98 
120 
120 
140 
168 
156 

30 

35 
. 25 

49 

50 

41 


5.19 
5.36 
40.00 
37.50 
40.84 
59.16 
45.66 
43.66 
8.23 
10.00 
10.00 
11.66 
18.00 
13.00 
2.50 
2.91 
2.08 
4.08 
4.16 
3.41 


.036 
.037 
.277 
.260 
.283 
.410 
.317 
.302 
.057 
.069 
.069 
.081 
.124 
.090 
.017 
.019 
.015 
.028 
.030 
.023 


1.000 
1.028 
7.70 
7.20 
7.84 
11.36 
8.80 
8.40 
1.57 
1.92 
1.92 
2.24 
2.68 
2.49 
.48 
.56 
.40 
.78 
.80 
.65 



LOGARITHMS. 
Logarithms are of very great importance in facili- 
tating the arithmetical operations of multiplication 
and division. If a multiplication is to be effected, 
it is only necessary to take from the logarithmic 
table the logarithms of the factor, and add them 
together; this gives the logarithm of the required 
product. On finding in the table the number corre- 
sponding to this new logarithm, the product itself 
is obtained. Thus, by means of a table of loga- 
rithms, the operation of multiplication is performed 
by simple addition. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



307 





p 


OStCKOOCCNQOli^OOtOl-'OOCC-vtOJOl^OJtOHOO 



00000 
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> 



308 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



p, 

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56584 
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54033 
55266 
56466 
57634 
58771 
59879 
60959 
62013 
63042 
64048 
65030 
65991 
66931 
67851 
68752 
69635 
70500 
71349 
72181 
72997 
73798 
74585 
75358 
76117 
76863 
77597 
78318 


« 


53907 
55145 
56348 
57518 
58658 
59769 
60852 
61909 
62941 
63948 
64933 
65896 
66838 
67760 
68663 
69548 
70415 
71265 
72098 
72916 
73719 
74507 
75281 
76042 
76789 
77524 
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W 


53781 
55022 
56229 
57403 
58546 
59659 
60745 
61804 
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77085 
77815 


6 


'flOtONOOroOHNCO^lOONOCaOHMCO^lOCONOOaO 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



309 



TABLE 

OP CO-EFFICIENTS OF FRICTION. 



















"S 


«d 








•2-M* 


.8© 




Material. 


Unguent. 


|2 


o+3 


Wood 


on wood, minimum .... 


Surfaces dry 


.30 


.20 


" 


" " mean 


tt n 


.50 


.36 


" 


" " maximum. . . . 


a tt 


.70 


.48 


" 


" " minimum .... 


Water . . 


.65 




« 


" " mean 


" . . 


.68 


.25 


« 


" " maximum. . . . 


" . . 


.71 




" 


" " mean 


Hogs' lard . 


.21 


.07 


u 


" " minimum .... 


Tallow . . 


.14 


.06 


tt 


" " mean 


" . . 


.19 


.07 


tt 


" " maximum. . . . 
" " minimum .... 


tt 
Polished and 


.25 


.08 






greasy . . 


.30 


.08 


tt 


" " mean 


Polished and 










greasy . . 


.35 


.12 


ft 


" " maximum .... 


Polished and 










greasy . . 


.40 


.15 


" 


" metal 


Dry surfaces 


.60 


.42 


" 


" " 


Water . . 


.65 


.24 


" 


" " 


Hogs' lard . 


.12 


.07 


" 


tt tt 


Tallow . . 


.12 


.08 


It 


tt it 


Polished and 
greasy . . 


.10 




Metal 


on metal, minimum .... 


Dry . . . 


.15 


.15 


" 


" " mean 


" ... 


.18 


.18 


" 


" " maximum. . . . 


" ... 


.24 


.24 


" 


" " minimum .... 


Olive oil . . 


.11 


.06 


" 


" " mean ..... 


" " . . 


.12 


.07 


" 


" " maximum. . . . 


" " . . 


.16 


.08 


" 


" " mean 


Hogs' lard . 


.10 


.09 


a 


" " " 


Tallow . . 


.11 


.09 


it 


tt it a 


Polished and 










greasy . . 


.10 


— 



310 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABL E— {Continued) 
OF CO-EFFICIENTS OF FRICTION. 



Material. 



Unguent. 



Thick sole-leather on wood on edg< 
" flat, 
on edge 
flat . 
on edge 
flat . 

Stone on stone polished, minimum 
" " " " maximum 

" " wrought-iron, minimum 
" " " maximum 

Hemp in ropes on wood, minimum 
a u u u u m ean . 
" " " " " maximum 
u u a t( (( mean m 

Bronze on lignum vitse (Ban/cine) 
Smooth surfaces " 



" " best results " 

Masonry on dry clay ( Trautwine) 

" " moist clay " 

Masonry and brickwork, dry 

{Trautwine) 

Masonry and brickwork, wet 

mortar {Trautwine) 

Masonry and brickwork, damp 

mortar [Trautwine) ... 

Brick on brick 

Leather belts on wood . . . 
" " " metal . . . 



Dry . 
Water 
Olive oil 
Dry . 



Water 



Random lu- 
brication 

Continuou 
lubrication 

Continuous 
lubrication 



Dry 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



31] 



TABLE 




OF FRACTIONAL PARTS OF AN INCH EXPRESSED 


DECIMALLY 


Correspond'g Decimal 


1-64 


= .015625 


2-64= 1-32= 


= .03125 


3-64 


= .046875 


4-64= 2-32= 1-16 


= .0625 


6-84= 3-32 


= .09375 


8-64= 4-32= 2-16 = 1-8 


= .125 


10-64= 5-32 


= .15625 


12-64= 6-32= 3-16 


= .1875 


14-64= 7-32 


= .21875 


16-64= 8-32= 4-16=2-8=1-4 


= .25 


18-64= 9-32 


= .28125 


20-64 = 10-32= 5-16 


= .3125 


22-64 = 11-32 


= .34375 


24-64 = 12-32= 6-16 = 3-8 


= .375 


26-64 = 13-32 


= .40625 


28-64 = 14-32= 7-16 


= .4375 


30-64 = 15-32 


= .46875 


32-64 = 16-32= 8-16 = 4-8=2-4 = 1-2 


= .5 


34-64 = 17-32 


= .53125 


36-64 = 18-32= 9-16 


= .5625 


38-64 = 19-32 


= .59375 


40-64 = 20-32 = 10-16 = 5-8 


= .625 


42-64 = 21-32 


= .65625 


44-64 = 22-32 = 11-16 


= .6875 


46-64 = 23-32 


= .71875 


48-64 = 24-32 = 12-16 = 6-8 = 3-4 


= .75 


50-64 = 25-32 


= .78125 


52-64 = 26-32 = 13-16 


= .8125 


54-64 = 27-32 


= .84375 


56-64 = 28-32 = 14-16 = 7-8 


= .875 


58-64 = 29-32 


= .90625 


60-64 = 30-32 = 15-16 


= .9375 


62-64 = 31-32 


= .96875 


64-64 ■= 32-32 = 16-16 = 8-8 = 4-4 — 2-2 


- 1.00000 



312 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



TABLE 

OP STANDARDS OF ENGLISH AND UNITED STATES LINEAR, 
SQUARE, CUBIC, SOLID, AND LIQUID MEASURES. 

LINEAR MEASURE. 

12 inches 1 foot 

3 feet 1 yard 

5£ yards 1 rod, perch, or pole. 

40 rods ....... 1 furlong. 

8 furlongs 1 mile. 

3 miles 1 league- 

SQUARE MEASURE. 

144 square inches 1 square foot. 

9 square feet 1 square yard. 

30£ square yards 1 square rod. 

40 square rods 1 square rood. 

4 roods 1 acre. 

CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 

1728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot. 

27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard. 

24| cubic feet 1 cubic perch. 

LIQUID MEASURE. 

United States Standard. Cubic in. 

4 gills .... lpint. . . 28.875 

2 pints . . . . 1 quart. . . 57-750 

4 quarts .... 1 gallon. . . 231 
63 gallons • . .1 hogshead. 

British Standard. Cubic in. 

i gills .... lpint, . . . 34.6592 

2 pints .... 1 quart. . . . 69.3185 

2 quarts .... 1 pottle. . . . 138.637 

2 pottles . . 1 gallon. . . . 277.274 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 31$ 

TABLE 

OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

12 inches = 1 foot. 

3 feet = 1 yard = 36 ins. 

5^ yards =lrod = 198 ins. = 16|ft. 

40 rods = lfurl'g = 7920 ins. = 660 ft. = 220 yds.. 

8 furlongs = 1 mile = 63360 ins. = 5280 ft. = 1760 yds. 

Ounter's Chain. 
7.92 inches = 1 link. 
100 links = 1 chain = 4 rods = 66 feet. 
80 chains = 1 mile. 
6 feet = 1 fathom. 

MEASURES OF SURFACE. 

144 square inches = 1 square foot. 
9 square feet = 1 square yard. 
100 square feet = 1 square (architect's measure)- i 

Land. 
30£ square yards = 1 square rod. 
40 square rods = 1 square rood. 
4 square roods 1=1 acre. 
10 square chains } = 160 sq. rods. 
640 acres = 1 sq. mile. 

102,400 square rods = 2560 square roods. 
208.71 feet square = 1 acre. 

MEASURES OF VOLUME. 

1 gallon liquid measure = 231 cubic inches, contains* 
8.339 avoirdupois pounds of distilled water at 39.8° Fah. 

1 gallon dry measure = 268.8 cubic inches. 

1 bushel ( Winchester) contains 2150.42 cubic inches, or: 
77.627 pounds distilled water at 39.8° Fah. 

A heaped bushel contains 2747.715 cubic inches* 
27 



314 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Dry. 
2 pints = 1 quart = 67.2 cub. ins. 
4 quarts = 1 gallon = 8 pints = 268.8 cub. ins. 
2 gallons = 1 peck = 16 pints = 8 qts. = 537.6 cub. ins. 
4 pecks = 1 bush. = 64 pints = 32 qts. = 8 gallons = 
2150.42 cubic inches. 
1 chaldron = 36 heaped bushels = 57.244 cubic feet. 
1 cord of wood = 128 cubic feet. 



4 gills = 1 pint. 

2 pints = 1 quart = 8 gills. 

4 quarts = 1 gallon = 32 gills = 8 pints. 

The Imperial gallon = 277.274 cubic inches, and contains 
10 lbs. of distilled water at 62° Fah. = 1.2003 standard 
gallon. 

Fluid. 

60 minims = 1 drachm = 57 grains Troy at 39.8° Fah. 

8 drachms = 1 oz. =480 minims = .9501 oz. Troy at 39.8 9 
Fah. 

16 ounces = 1 pint =7680 minims = 128 drachms. 

8 pints = 1 gallon = 61440 minims = 1024 drachms =» 
128 ounces. 

MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 



16 drachms =1 ounce. 

16 ounces =1 pound = 256 drachms. 

112 pounds = 1 cwt. = 28672 drachms = 1792 oz. 

20 cwt. =1 ton =573440 drachms = 35840 oa.= 
2240 pounds. 

1 pound = 14 ounces, 11 dwts., 16 grains Troy, or 7000 
grains. 

1 ounce = 18 dwts., 5J grains Troy, or 437 J grains. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 315 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE CRUSHING STRENGTH OP DIFFERENT MATE- 
RIALS, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. 
Materials. Compression. 

Steel, Hematile, bar 159,578 

Krupp, specimen 200,032 

cast 225,000 

Bessemer, length 30 diams 41,328 

crucible, " " .... 45,763 

bars, 7 specimens 55,328 

blister and shear 150,000 

American black diamond .... 102,500 
American black diamond, hardened in oil 1 

at 82° Fan } 185,200 

same, hardened in water at 79° Fan. . . 337,800 

Wrought-iron 35,840 

bars, Low Moor 31,792 

" Yorkshire 29,120 

hammered bars, Swedish . . . 36,000 

specimen 1" X 1" square . . 184,128 

1 5" X 1 5" round . . 148,842 

15"X3" " . . 84,896 

15"X15" " . . 28,067 

Cast-iron, averages, ordinary 86,296 

" " stirlings .. . . . „ 133,330 

" American gun metal .... 175,000 

" hot blast 111,328 

" cold " . . . . . . . 99,232 

" American 2d melting .... 99,680 

u "3d "... . 140,000 

U U oj U N 

* • * i o ao ^- ' C 167,104 
of mixture 1, 2, and 3 meltings . J 

Brass 164,800 

Tin 15,500 

Lead 7,730 



316 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Materials. . Compression. 

Copper, cast 117,000 

" wrought 103,000 

TIMBER. 

Alder. 6,900 

Ash 8,600 

Beech, unseasoned 7,700 

" seasoned 9,300 

Birch, American, unseasoned 6,000 

" seasoned 11,600 

Cedar, unseasoned 5,700 

" seasoned 6,500 

Elm " 10,000 

Fir — Spruce, unseasoned . . . ... . 6,500 

" " seasoned 6,800 

" Eiga 6,000 

Hickory, white 8,925 

Hornbeam, unseasoned 4,500 

" seasoned 7,300 

Larch, unseasoned 3,200 

" seasoned ....... 5,500 

Locust ......... 9,113 

Mahogany, Spanish 8,200 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE MODULUS OP ELASTICITY OF DIFFERENT 
MATERIALS, IN TONS, OF TWO THOUSAND POUNDS EACH. 

n Kolled iron, bars and bolts . . . 14,500 

" wire . . . ... 12,650 

" " beams . . . . . 12,000 

Cast-iron \ d , fffirfiTlt stw . Wtis . . j 6,821) 



Steel bars 



( 6 821 ) 
different specimens . . -L-^^f 9,135 

) u « f 14,182) 

| ■ ' J21,000} 17 > 951 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 317 

Copper, wire 8,500 

Bronze (copper 8, tin 1) . . . . 4,950 

Brass, wire 7,115 

" castings 4,585 

Wire rope, iron 7,500 

Lead, sheet 360 

Glass 4,000 

Slate 7,250 

Ash 800 

Beech 675 

Birch 823 

Chestnut 570 

Elm) (350) k , a 

Larch) ( 450) 

"I'''"--- t680} 565 

Mahogany 627 

Oak European) J 600) 

« f • • " ' \ m l 737 

" American white .... 448 

"red .... . 1,075 

Pine, New England 647 

" pitch 696 

<> «} J950| 77 ° 

" yellow 506 

SP -} {2} soo 

Sycamore 520 

The modulus of elasticity is based on theory, or 
an imaginary idea, which assumes perfect elasticity 
of all kinds of materials, but it is never realized in 
practice. 
27* 



SI 8 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

NON-CONDUCTORS FOR PREVENTING RADIA- 
TION AND CONDENSATION IN STEAM-CYLIN* 
DERS, PIPES, BOILERS, STEAM-DOMES, ETC. 

The value of different substances varies, in the 
inverse ratio of their conducting power for heat, up 
to their ability to transmit as much heat as the sur- 
face of the pipe will radiate, after which they be- 
come detrimental rather than useful as covering. 
A smooth or polished surface is of itself a good pro- 
tection — polished tin or Russia iron having a ratio, 
for radiation, of 100 for cast-iron ; mere color makes 
but little difference. 

Hair op felt has the disadvantage of becoming 
charred by the heat of steam, especially at high 
pressure, and from being liable to take fire, and there- 
fore many different non-conductors have been intro- 
duced, consisting of potters' clay, mixed with ashes, 
asbestos, paper fibre, charcoal, etc., all of which in- 
duce a saving of fuel, by preventing radiation. 

A cheap and very efficient non-conductor may be 
made for steam-pipes, drums, etc., by covering the 
pipe with asbestos paper, then laying on strips of 
wood, binding them with wire, and covering the 
whole structure with canvas, or paper, after which 
it may be painted in any color to suit the fancy of 
the engineer or proprietor. 

Another good non-conductor may be made by 
covering the surface with a rough flour paste, mixed 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 315 

with saw-dust, until it forms a moderately stiff dough. 
Apply with a trowel, in layers of about one-quarter 
of an inch thick ; give four or five layers in all. If 
iron surfaces are well cleaned from grease, the ad- 
hesion is perfect. For copper, first apply a hot 
solution of clay in water. A coating of tar will 
render the composition impervious to the weather. 

It has been shown, by careful experiment and ob- 
servation, that the condensation of steam in pipes 
covered with some good non-conductor, as compared 
with naked pipes, is as 100 to 61. Mineral wool, 
fossil meal, and articles manufactured from the slag 
produced in blast-furnaces, are coming into very gen- 
eral use, but asbestos, or mineral flax, as it is called, 
is superior to any other material as a non-conductor ; 
it cannot be charred, burned, or consumed by any 
ordinary heat to which it may be subjected. 



320 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



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THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



321 



TABLE 

SHOWING THE VALUE OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES AS NON- 
CONDUCTORS. 



Conducting 
Power. 



Blotting-paper . 
Eiderdown 

Cotton or wool; any density- 
Hemp, canvas . 
Mahogany dust . 
Wood ashes . 
Straw . . . . 
Charcoal powder 
Wood, across fibre . 

Cork 

Coke, pulverized 
India rubber . 
Wood, with fibre 
Plaster of Paris 
Baked clay 

Glass 

Stone 



.274 
.314 
.323 
.418 
.523 
.531 
.563 



.83 
1.15 
1.29 
1.37 
.1.40 
3.86 
4.83 



13.68 



It will be observed that blotting-paper has the 
least, while stone has the greatest, conducting 
powers. Smooth, bright, polished surfaces are 
better non-conductors than dark, rough surfaces. 
Tin or Russia sheet-iron are better than either 
cast- or wrought-iron. 

V 



322 THE YOUNG ENGINEERS OWN BOOK. 

THE INJECTOR. 




WILLIAM SELLERS & CO.'S INJECTORS. 

Injectors may be classed under three heads, viz., 
adjusting, self-adjusting, and fixed nozzle. These 
again are divided into two classes, i. e., lifting and 
non-lifting. 

The adjustable injector requires to be set or ad- 
justed by the attendant or engineer, otherwise it will 
not discharge its functions under varying conditions, 
such as steam pressure, water supply, etc. 

The self-adjusting injector will accommodate itself 
to an extra steam or water supply, or to a lack of 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 323 

volume in either, provided it is arranged in the first 
place to meet these requirements. 

The fixed nozzle injector will in most instances 
work under steam pressure of from 10 to 100 pounds 
per square inch, provided the steam and water sup- 
ply are sufficient. 

The adjustable injector has good qualities, as, if 
the steam pressure should become very low, and the 
water supply insufficient, or nearly cut-off, the injector 
may be adjusted to work under an immense pressure 
and supply ; but the self-adjusting is more convenient 
and reliable, as it will not slip the water like the ad- 
justable. The lifting injector is very desirable in 
localities where there is no head or water pressure, 
and in cities and towns where, on certain days in the 
week, the consumption or waste almost exceeds the 
supply. All injectors have peculiarities inherent in 
themselves, which are the result of design and con- 
struction. 

The injector is one of the most wonderful machines 
ever invented by man, on account of its utility, sim- 
plicity, and energy, and from the fact that its first 
cost is trifling, its proportions diminutive, its develop- 
ment of power wonderful, and that it may be set up 
horizontally, vertically, or inclined, in any place, 
where sufficient steam or water can be procured to 
work it. It occupies little space, requires no oil, 
tallow, or packing, and very slight attention, when 
constructed on correct mechanical principles. 



324 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

The principles involved in the working of the in- 
jector were looked upon, when it was first introduced, 
as a mystery, but there is no mystery in it. Its 
performance was demonstrated by Nicholson and 
Young nearly a hundred years ago, but they did not 
know how to apply it as a steam-boiler feeder. Gif- 
ford was the first to make the attempt, but his instru- 
ment was very crude and unreliable. It may be said, 
in justice to him, that when he invented his injector, 
he invented them all. The Mack, the Keystone, the 
Eclipse, the Clipper, the Duplex, the Rue, etc., like 
the different types of the Corliss engine, all belong 
to the same mechanical brood. 

William Sellers, of Philadelphia, was the first 
scientist in this country to attempt the construction 
of the injector on scientific mechanical principles. 
The world is more indebted to him for the improve- 
ment of the injector than to all others who have 
claimed to have done so. The principle involved in 
the working of the injector is similar to that pro- 
duced in the smoke-stack of the locomotive by the 
action of the exhaust steam. Air, being expelled 
from the top of the stack, rushes in under the grate 
to supply the partial vacuum, and causes energetic 
combustion of the fuel. 

The same principle is demonstrated in the steam 
siphon, the inspirator, the pulsometer, the aque- 
ometer, etc. — the air being expelled from the cham 
ber, barrel, or pipe by the elastic force of steam, the 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 325 

water rises in accordance with natural laws 33 feet : 
as long as the current of steam is kept up, the sup- 
ply of water will follow in its wake. 

The foregoing may be susceptible of a further ex- 
planation. Suppose the steam-pipe that supplied the 
injector were one inch in area, and that the steam 
pressure were 60 pounds per square inch, it would 
escape with a velocity of 1*1*1*1 feet per second into 
the atmosphere, or into the steam of a lower press- 
ure. 

Now, supposing the steam were condensed as fast 
as it escaped from the boiler, the water resulting 
from the condensation would be only equal to LIT 
of the steam from which it was condensed. If the 
steam and water supply were kept up, the injector 
would work on forever, or until it was worn out. 

Injectors supplied with steam of 60 pounds press- 
ure per square inch have been known to force water 
into boilers against a pressure of 180 pounds per 
square inch, or three times the pressure of the steam 
with which it was supplied. This arises from the 
fact that in the application of the principle on which 
the action of the injector is based, a large force may 
be concentrated against a small one. 
28 



326 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



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6*28 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR SETTING UP INJECTORS. 

First. Care should be taken that all the supply- 
pipes, whether steam, water, or delivery, should have 
the same internal diameter as the hole nipple, plug, 
branch, tee (T), reducer, to which they are attached, 
and that they should be as straight, direct, and 
smooth on the inside as possible. 

Second. When the water contains floating par- 
ticles, such as saw-dust, shavings, hay, straw, weeds, 
etc., a strainer should be placed over the end of the 
supply-pipe, and the holes in the strainer must be of 
small diameter, but at the same time the combined 
area must exceed that of the supply-pipe. 

Third. The steam for the injector should in all 
cases be taken from the highest part of the boiler, in 
order to prevent the passage of water with the steam. 

Fourth. In setting lifting injectors, care must be 
taken to have the pipes air- and water-tight, for if 
they draw air it will cause a sputtering, and a lia- 
bility to break the jet. 

Fifth. If the water is not lifted by the injector, but 
, fed to it from a tank, hydrant, head, or other supply, 
a stop-cock should be placed on the pipe, in order to 
prevent flooding in the boiler when the steam is down. 

Sixth. A stop-valve must be placed in the steam- 
pipe, between the steam-room and the boiler and 
injector, and a check-valve between the water-space 
and injector. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



329 



Seventh. To obtain the best results, self-adjusting 
injectors should be set to lift water, or should be fed 
through a self-regulating-valve. 

Remarks. Injectors in general will give a fair 
range, if set up in accordance with the foregoing 
instructions, and the minimum might be taken at 60 
per cent, of the maximum. They are both influenced 
by circumstances ; the higher the steam is carried in 
the boiler, the greater will be the pressure in the 
supply -pipe, and vice versa. 




WMM 



THE DEAN STEAM-PUMP. 



PUMPS. 

The idea entertained by many engineers that 
water is raised by suction is erroneous, as, properly 
speaking, there is no such principle as suction, 
28* 



830 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Water, or other liquids, are raised through -a tube 
or hose by the pressure of the atmosphere on their 
surface. 

When the atmosphere is removed from the tube, 
there will be no resistance to prevent the water from 
rising, as the water outside of the pipe, still having 
the pressure of the atmosphere upon its surface, forces 
water up into the pipe, supplying the place of the 
excluded air ; while the water inside the pipe will 
rise above the level of that outside of it proportion- 
ally to the extent to which it is relieved of the press- 
ure of the air. 

If the first stroke of a pump reduces the pressure 
of the air contained in the pipe from 15 pounds on 
the square inch (which is its normal pressure) to 14 
pounds, the water will be forced up the pipe to the 
distance of about 21 feet, since a column of water an 
inch square and 21 feet high is equal to about 1 pound 
in weight. 

Now, if the second stroke of the pump reduces 
the pressure of the atmosphere in the pipe to 13 
pounds per inch, the water will rise another 2 i feet. 
This rule is uniform, and shows that the rise of a 
column of water within the pipe is equal in weight 
to the pressure of the air upon the surface of the 
water without. 

The distance that a pump will lift, or draw water, 
as it is termed, is about 33 feet, because water of one 
inch area 33 feet high weighs 14.T pounds. When 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 331 

a column of air 45 miles high weighs just the same 
at sea-level, consequently 33 feet of water, 45 miles 
of air, and 30 inches of mercury form a balance, as 
they weigh just the same ; but the pump must be in 
good order to lift 33 feet. Any pump will give better 
satisfaction and lift from 22 to 25 feet. 

Pumps are divided into several classes — lift, 
force, single-acting, double-acting, rotary, centrif- 
ugal, bucket-plunger, solid piston, etc., and are 
adapted to a great variety of mechanical purposes 
They are simply a hydraulic machine, and their 
action is based on the same principle. 

Steam-pumps are among the most important ma- 
chines in use at the present day. 

There are many things to be considered in locating 
steam-pumps, such as the source from which the 
water is to be obtained, the point of delivery, and 
the quantity required in a given time ; whether the 
water is to be lifted or flows to the pump ; whether 
it is to be forced directly into the boiler or raised 
into a tank 25, 50, or 100 feet above the pump. 

When purchasing a steam-pump to supply any 
steam-engine or boiler, their minimum and maximum 
capacity, or the greatest decrease that would ever be 
made on the boiler, should be known, when a pump 
should be selected capable of delivering one cubic 
foot of water per horse-power per hour. 

It must be understood when selecting pumps for 
lifting water, that their actual capacity is at least 20 
per cent, less than their theoretic capacity. 



332 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

When the lift is high, or approaching the theoretic 
lift, 33 feet, it is absolutely necessary that the pipes 
should be perfectly air-tight, as a pump will draw 
water on a level 1000 feet, providing it is in good 
condition, and all the pipes and connections are per- 
fectly air-tight. 

No pump, however good, will lift hot water, be- 
cause, as soon as the air is expelled from the barrel 
of the pump, the vapor occupies the space, destroys 
the vacuum, and interferes with the supply of water. 
As a result of all this, the pump knocks. 

Pumps should be located as near to the boiler 
which they are intended to feed, or the work they 
are expected to perform, as possible. 

The suction and delivery pipes should be as short 
and as straight as possible, because a pipe 2 inches 
in diameter and 2 inches long will deliver four times 
as much water in a given time as a pipe 2 inches in 
diameter and 100 feet long. 

When the well is deep, or the lift high, a check- 
valve should be placed near the bottom, and a strainer 
on the bottom of the pipe, to prevent any floating 
substance in the water from obstructing the action 
of the valves. 

The exhaust-pipes of steam-pumps should be 
turned downward when practicable, but, when not 
possible, a drip-cock should be placed in the elbow 
next the pump. 

The steam- and exhaust-pipes should be the full size 



IrtE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 333 

of the holes in the pump-chest, as any reduction of their 
diameter will diminish the capacity of the pump. 

Avoid short angles or bends in the pipes of steam- 
pumps, as they induce friction, and retard the free 
supply and delivery of the water. 

When long pipes are used for suction and delivery, 
their diameters should be increased over that of the 
diameter of the steam and exhaust openings in the 
pump. 

When it becomes necessary to pump hot water, 
the pump should be placed below the supply, so that 
the water may flow into the valve-chamber. 

Steam-pumps are frequently employed to take the 
place of traps, for returning the water of condensa- 
tion to the boilers, when buildings are heated with 
steam, for which purpose they are superior to any 
other mechanical arrangement. They are also used 
for running hydraulic elevators in hotels, stores, ware- 
houses, and public institutions. 

To prevent a steam -pump from freezing in cold 
localities, be sure that the steam- and water-valves 
are perfectly tight, and that the drip-cocks are left 
open at night. 

The steam-pump should be an object of care and 
solicitude to the engineer or fireman, and, like the 
injector, it is a mechanical arrangement of wonderful 
utility and convenience. 

What should we do without the steam-pump ? 



834 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




THE DAYTON CAM STEAM-PUMP. 
TABLE 

OF PROPORTIONS OF THE DAYTON CAM PUMP. 



is 




go 

to* 

h5od 


slip® 
o.S* 
Sec g 


OOD g- 

33 It 
-is p- 

GO 




o o 


4 

8| 

Q2.S 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 




Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


3* 


2* 


o 


.046 


i 

2" 


f 


1 


1 


4f 


3 


4 


.122 


* 


1 


H 


1 


5 


3£ 


6 


.199 


3. 

4 


H 


H 


H 


«*» 


4 


7 


.38 


1 


H 


2 


4 


7 


4 


10 


.544 


1 


2 


2* 


2 


9 


5 


10 


.850 


I* 


2* 


3 


2* 


11 


7 


10 


1.66 


H 


2h 


4 


3 


11 


6* 


14 


2.01 


1* 


2* 


4 


3 


13* 


74 


14 


2.68 


2 


3 


5 


4 


X6J 


10 


18 


6.12 


2J 


4 


6 


5 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 335 

DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP STEAM-PUMPS. 

First. The most necessary condition to the satis- 
factory working of the steam-pump is a full and 
steady supply of water. 

Second. The pipe connections should in no case 
be smaller than the openings in the pump. 

Third. The suction, lift, and delivery pipes should 
be as straight and smooth on the inside as possible. 

Fourth. When the water contains foreign sub- 
stances, such as chips, shavings, saw-dust, straw, 
etc., a strainer should be placed on the end of the 
supply-pipe — the holes in this strainer should never 
be less than three times the area of the pipes. 

Fifth. When the lift is high, or the draw long, a 
foot-valve should be placed on the end of the suction 
pipe, and the area of the foot-valve should exceed to 
a certain extent the area of the pipe. 

Sixth. A suction air-chamber is a great advantage 
to the pump, when the lift is high. 

Seventh. The area of the steam- and exhaust-pipes 
should in all cases be fully as large as the nipples in 
the pump to which they are attached. 

Eighth. The cylinders of steam-pumps should in 
all cases be oiled before starting in the morning or 
stopping at night. 

Ninth. Stuffing-boxes on the piston and valve-rods 
should in all cases be kept well filled with soft and 
moist packing, as, if the packing is allowed to be- 



66b THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

come hard and dry, it will flute the rods, and induce 
leakage, and necessitate repairs. 

Tenth. The air vessel on the delivery-pipe of the 
steam-pump should never be less than five times the 
area of the water cylinder. 

Eleventh. When pumps are standing still, idle, or 
out of service in cold weather, all the drain, drip, and 
pet-cocks should be left open. 

Twelfth. When the pump does not behave well, 
care should be taken and patience and observation 
exercised, in order to ascertain what is the cause. 

Thirteenth. Never undertake to break the joints, 
or pull the pump apart, until you are satisfied where 
the drip may exist. 

Fourteenth. If you wish a pump to work well, and 
discharge all the functions for which it is intended, 
treat it well, oil it, pack it carefully, and see that all 
the joints, connections, elbows, T's, couplings, unions, 
ferrules, reducers, and bonnets are steam- and water- 
tight. 

Fifteenth. It must be understood that no pump, 
however perfect it may be, will lift hot water any 
considerable distance. If the temperature of the 
water is high, or, in other words, if the water is 
very hot, the supply should be placed above the 
pump. 

Sixteenth. Never strike the pump with a monkey- 
wrench, hammer, or any other steel tool. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



337 



0005020>^*»tOi4^4^tOK)0-<r 


Diam. of steam- 
cylinder 
in inches. 


0O0DGO00^rO5O5"<IOiO5CnOl^ 


Diam. of water- 
cylinder 
in inches. 


HWHMMMMHHMMHM 


Length of stroke 
in inches. 


W(Sp5C«Wl- 1 MU) i HMHM ( 


Gallons 
per stroke. 


oo"oo"o~o~o"oo"oo"oo 

OOOOOrOiOiCnOiOiOiOlOl 

ooooooooooooo 


Strokes 
per minute. 


MOitOOMMSOOOOOOJ 
OiOOiOOiOidOOOOiOiO 

CD 


Capacity per 

minute at 

ordinary speed. 


1— I 


Extreme length 
in inches. 




Extreme width 
in inches. 


COfcObOtdbSbCtOtCtOtOtOI- 1 !-' 


Size of steam 
supply-pipe. 


tO(HtC(l-bO)MtOiMl^MtOlHtO|MlC(l-itO|MtC(HtO|H M|H 


Size of steam 
exhaust-pipe. 


H3 H 
r R s a 5 r3 - ~3 

o o 


Size of 
suction. 


H i-3 
r r a r r r3 a r3 

o o 

bo|H*a|H 


Size of 
discharge. 



H i-3 



W O 
Q W 



29 



W 



338 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 




WILLIAM SELLERS & CO.'S MULE PULLEYS. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 339 

BELTING. 

The belt, whether made of leather, rubber, or 

canvas, is the cheapest, most convenient, and simplest 
arrangement for the transmission of the power of 
the motor to the different machines on which me- 
chanical operations have to be performed. Naturally, 
the intuitive ingenuity of the American mechanic 
discovered those facts, and, as a result, belting is 
more extensively employed for the transmission of 
power in this country than in any other in the world. 

Belts, with proper mechanical appliances, as shown 
on pages 338, 341, may be run at any angle and be of 
any reasonable length. This gives them a stronger 
recommendation over cog, mitre, or bevel gearing, 
with its accompanying noise and jar, which is so ex- 
tensively used in the different manufacturing coun- 
tries of Europe. Though the motion imparted by 
the belt is not positive like that of cog-gears, never, 
theless, when the belt is of the proper width, and in 
good condition, and the pulleys of suitable size, the 
power that it will transmit can be easily calculated. 

The smoother the surface of the belt, and the pul- 
leys on which it travels, the more power it will 
transmit, providing it is in good condition, moist, 
and pliable. Yertical belts transmit less power than 
horizontal ones, while belts that run over convey 
more power than those which run under. Long 
belts transmit more power with the same tension 



340 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

than short ones. Cross belts will transmit more 
power than straight ones, but they are objectionable. 
No belt will carry much, if there is a great dispro- 
portion between the driving and driven pulleys, and 
vice versa. The quarter-twist belt is a nuisance, 
both in appearance and behavior. 

Double belts cost twice as much as single belts, 
and do not render service in proportion, because they 
are exposed to two strains, elongation and compres- 
sion. The single belt is more desirable, if propor- 
tioned to its work. If belts were of the proper 
width, and pulleys of the right diameter, to transmit 
the required power without straining, they would 
last twice as long. Any belt ought to be of such a 
width that it will transmit the required power with 
a certain amount of sag. 

All belts ought to be oiled with fish, castor-oil, 
tallow, or other preparations, whenever they become 
dry ; but if they are very dry and husky, they ought 
to be first soaked in water for a short time, and the 
unguent applied when they are moist. The narrow 
belt may be put on so tight as to transmit a great 
amount of power, but the fibre of the leather will be 
so extended that it will soon rot ; besides, the holes 
will pull out and the belt will be ruined. 

Never place a belt on a pulley in motion ; always 
place it on the loose pulley, and, if the belt is long 
and heavy, it is always best to slacken the speed of the 
engine. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 341 




WILLIAM SELLERS &. CO.'S IDLERS. 
29* 



342 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

Rule. — For Finding the Desired Length of Pul- 
ley Belt. — Add the diameter of the two pulleys 
together, multiply by 3 J, divide the product by 2, 
add the quotient to twice the distance between the 
centres of the shafts, and you have the length re- 
quired. 

Rule. — For Finding the Required Size of a Driv- 
ing-Pulley for any Required Speed. — Multiply the 
diameter of the driven pulley by the number of 
revolutions it should make, and divide the product 
by the revolution of the driver ; the quotient will be 
the required size of the driver. 

Rule. — For Finding the Diameter of a Driven 
Pulley, a Given Number of Revolutions of the 
Driver being known. — Multiply the diameter of the 
driver pulley by its number of revolutions, and 
divide the product by the number of revolutions of 
the driven pulley ; the quotient will give the proper 
size of the driven pulley. 

The wider the belt, and the larger the diameter 
of the pulleys, the more power will be transmitted, 
because with a wide belt there are more square inches 
of surface in contact with the peripheries of the driver 
and driven pulleys, besides the arms of the pulleys 
are levers, and the longer they are the more they 
will lift, convey, or transmit. 



THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 



THE STEAM LUBRICATOR. 

Hitherto, the introduction of visible feed lubri- 
cators on small engines was 
impracticable, owing to their 
cost, complex construction, 
difficulty of application, and 
the skill required to operate 
them. 

In the cut, the Lubricator 
is shown attached to the steam- 
pipe of an engine by one con- 
nection, which contains a steam 
inlet, and oil outlet, the former 
communicating between the 
steam and balloon-shaped con- 
denser, the latter between the 
steam-pipe and oil vessel. At 
the front of the oil chamber is 
an angular extension, through which, by the re- 
moval of the filler valve (as shown), the oil chamber 
is filled with oil or tallow ; the sides of the angular 
extension are provided with circular observation 
ports, exposing to view a glass indicator tube, 
through which is made visible both the rate of feed 
of oil, and its entire displacement from the oil cup. 




*THE ECLIPSE. 



* Inventor and manufacturer, J. Vin. Kenchard, Detroit, 
Mich. 



344 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 

On each side of the oil chamber is located a valve ; 
that on the left to regulate the feed, or the flow of 
water from the balloon to the interior of the oil 
chamber, and that on the right, to admit the dis- 
charge of the oil from the oil chamber into the steam- 
pipe, where it mingles with the steam on its passage 
to the engine. The valve at the bottom of the oil 
chamber is for emptying the Lubricator. 

The Lubricator injects oil into the steam-pipe of 
engines at any convenient attachment point between 
the engine and boiler, infusing the steam with foam 
of oil, and as the steam thus saturated passes 
through the engine, it lubricates the throttle, gov- 
ernor, steam or cut-off valve, cylinder and piston. 
The feed of the oil being visible, it can be regulated 
to suit the requirement of the engine, and will con- 
tinue with unerring regularity. 

The engine requires but half the packing, half the 
oil, used by the old method. 



INDEX. 



Acceleration, 138. 

Actual heat, 193. 
or net horse-power, 39. 

Adams grate-bar, 272. 

Adjust the indicator, how to, 
129. 

Adjustable injector, 322. 

Admission, 145. 

Advance, angular, 84. 

Affinity, 138. 

Agricultural portable engine, 
58. 

Air, 168. 

Air-pump, 175. 
and condenser, the Turner, 

175. 
vessels, 177. 

Alter a steam-engine, 48. 

Amateur engineer, 117. 

Amount of benefit to be derived 
from working steam ex- 
pansively, rule for find- 
ing, 218. 
of lap for slide-valve cor- 
responding to any desired 
point of cut-off, rule for 
finding required, 148. 

Amount of lap required for 
stationary and locomotive 



slide-valve engines, tablet 

showing, 148. 
Analysis of Indiana coals, 

table deduced from an, 

205. 
AncJior-botts, 99. 
Angle, 138. 
Angular advance, 84. 
Area of crank, 65. 
valve, pressure, etc., are 

known, rule for finding 

weight necessary to put on 

a lever when, 281. 
valve, weight of ball, etc., 

are known, rule for finding 

pressure per square inch 

when, 282. 
Armington & Sims' engine, 40. 
Arms, 110. 
Atmosphere, pressure of, 168, 

253. 
resistance of, 35, 215. 
Atmospheric pressure, 214. 
Atomic force of heat, 193. 
Attraction, capillary, 138. 
Automatic cut-off engine, 

Buckeye, 59. 
cut-off engine, Twiss, 34. 
cut- off engine, Whitehall, 65. 
345 



346 



Automatic steam-damper, 
Murrill & Kyser's, 264. 

Average pressure in steam- 
cylinders, rule for finding, 
221. 

Axle, 138. 

Back, 110. 
view of Hoven Owens & 
Richter's Corliss engine, 
36. 
Badger heater, 288. 
Balance slide-valves, 14 
Ball steam-engine, 71. 
Baningwarith feed-water 

heater, 286. 
Basis of Virginia caking coal, 

table showing, 204. 
Basket valve, 144. 
Beam engine, the, 56. 
Bed-plates, 76. 
and housings, 76. 
box and side, 79. 
Belly, 110. 
Belting, 339. 

Belts, Sellers & Co.'s binder- 
frame for guiding, xxvi. 
Binder-frame for guiding 
belts, Sellers & Co.'s, xxvi. 
Bib-cock, 163. 

Blymyer horizontal stationary 
engine, 45, 50. 
portable engine, 61. 
Boiler braces, 273. 
double-deck, 228. 
flue, 227. 
materials, 277. 



Boiler test, 230. 
tubular, 227. 
upright, 229. 
Boiler-plate, 277. 
Boilers, locomotive or marine, 
240. 
sectional, 234. 
Boiling-point for fresh water 
at different altitudes above 
sea-level, table showing, 
182. 
Boiling-points of liquids un- 
der pressure of one atmos* 
phere, table showing, 182. 
Bonnet, 113. 
Boss of crank, 65. 
depth of, 66. 
diameter of, 66. 
Box and side bed-plates, 79. 
Boxes, connecting-rod, 86. 
Braces, boiler, 273. 
Brass or copper, to clean, 98. 
Breadth of gib and key, 66. 

of strap, 65. 
Breast, 110. 
Breeches, 113. 
Brown revolution indicator, 

153. 
Buckeye automatic cut-off en- 
gine, 59. 
Bushing, 164. 

Caloric, 223. 

Cam, 83. 

Cameron steam-pump,the, 36oi 

Cap, 113. 

Capacity, unit of, 300. 



347 



Capillary attraction, 138. 

Carbon, volatile, sulphur, etc., 
in Pittsburgh coal, table 
showing, 205. 

Core of steam-boiler, 266. 
of steam-engine, 94. 

Cast-iron, 91. 

Charcoal iron, 278. 

Check-valve, 163. 

Checks, 110. 

Chemical equivalents, 199. 
of wood, table showing, 205. 

Chimneys, 235. 
round, 236. 

Circle, the, 293. 

Circles, diameters and areas of, 
from to | of an inch, ad- 
vancing from i, table* of, 
296. 
from to £ of an inch, ad- 
vancing by eighths, table 
showing diameter and cir- 
cumference of, 295. 
from 0.10 to 1.00 inch, ad- 
vancing by .005, table 
showing diameter and 
areas of, 294. 
from ^ of an inch to 25 
inches, table of diameters, 
circumferences, and areas 
of, 297-299. 

Cisterns and tanks, table show- 
ing capacity of, 188. 

Clean brass or copper, 98. 
steam-engine, how to, 95. 

Clearance, 67. 

Coal, American anthracite, ta- 



ble showing the combusti- 
ble and n on -combustible in 
the best quality of, 204. 
Coal, analysis of Indiana, tabla 
deduced from, 205. 

best Pennsylvania anthra- 
cite, table showing compo- 
sition of, 204. 

combustible value of Ohio, 
table showing, 204. 

Cumberland (American), ta- 
ble showing constituents 
of, 204. 

ingredients in Newcastle 
(Eng.), table showing, 205. 

Pittsburgh, table showing 
carbon, volatile, sulphur, 
etc., in, 205. 

screenings of, 207. 

Virginia caking, table show- 
ing basis of, 204. 
Co-efficients of friction, table 

of, 309, 310. 
Coke as fuel, table showing 

heating power of, 205. 
Collar, 113. 

Combustible and non-combus- 
tible in the best quality of 
American anthracite coals, 
table showing, 204. 

value of Ohio coal, table 
showing, 204. 
Combustion, 197. 

spontaneous, 200. 

temperature of, 197. 
^Common-sense' 9 steam-boiler, 
273. 



348 



Composition of best Pennsyl- 
vania anthracite coal, ta- 
ble showing, 204. 
Compression, 145. 
Condenser and air-pump, the 
Turner, 175. 
jet, 135. 
surface, 135. 
Condensing and non-condens- 
ing engines, difference be- 
tween, 54. 
engine, Watt's, 56. 
Connecting-rod, 86. 
boxes, 86, 88. 
diameter of, 66. 
Connecting -rods, main, 87. 
Constituents of Cumberland 
coals (American), table 
showing, 204. 
Conversation between young 
engineer and his employer, 
124. 
Cooper tubular steam-boiler, 

etc., 267. 
Corliss engine, Owens & Rich- 
ter's, 36. 
frame, 78. 
Crank, 79. 
and eccentric, single, 79. 
area of, 65. 
at half-stroke, 82. 
at whole stroke, 82. 
boss of, 65. 
diameter of, 66. 
disc, 81. 
double, 80. 
moving outboard, or over, 82. 



Crank of a steam-engine, 81. 
single, 80. 
thickness of, 67. 
travelling inboard, or under, 
82. 
Crank-pin, diameter of, 66. 

length of, 67. 
Crank-shaft, diameter of, 66* 

bearing, length of, 67. 
Crist vibrating engine, 30. 
Cross-head bearings, length 

of, 67. 
Cross-heads, 73. 
Crushing strength of different 
materials, table showing, 
315. 
Cushion, 145. 
Cul-off, 145. 

Cylinder, how to set out pia 
ton -packing in, 99. 
plain, 227. 
steam-engine, 73. 

Dampers, 265. 

Dayton cam steam-pump, 334 

proportions of, 334. 
Dean steam-pump, the, 329. 
Depth of boss of crank, 66. 

piston-ring, 66. 
Design of steam-engines, 56. 
peculiarities of, 32. 
symmetry of, 64. 
Diagram, indicator, 128. 
Diameter and areas of circles 
from 0.10 to 1.00 inch, 
advancing by .005, table 
showing, 294. 



349 



Diameter and circumference 
of circles from to & of 
an inch, advancing by 
eighths, table showing, 
295. 

circumferences, and areas 
of circles from ^ of an 
inch to 25 inches, table of, 
297-299. 

of boss of crank, 66. 

of connecting-rod, 66, 

of crank, 66. 

of crank-pin, 66. 

of crank-shaft, 66. 

of eccentric-rod, 66. 

of exhaust-pipe, 67. 

of fly-wheels, 69. 

of packing, right, 102. 

of pipe sufficient to dis- 
charge a given quantity 
of water per minute in 
cubic feet, 185. 

ef piston-rod, 66. 

of rock-shaft bearing, 67. 

©f rock-shaft pin, 67. 

of screw, 167. 

of steam-pipe, 66. 

of valve-rod, 66. 

of wrist or cross-head pin, 66. 
Diameters and areas of circles 
from to | of an inch, 
advancing from |, table 
of, 296. 
Diamond Baxter engine, 55. 
Difference between condensing 
and non-condensing en- 
gines, 54. 
30 



Directions for setting up 
steam-pumps, 335. 

Disc crank, 80, 81. 

Distance from key-slot, 67. 

Double crank, 80. 

Double-beat valve, 144. 

Dotible-deck boiler, 228. 

Drip-cock, 163. 

Driven-pulley, rule for find- 
ing diameter of, 342. 

Driving -pulley for any re- 
quired speed, rule for find- 
ing required size of a, 342. 

Duration, unit of, 300. 

Dynamics, 138. 

Ear, 110. 

JEbullition, 179. 

Eccentric, 83. 
and single crank, 79. 

Eccentric-rod, diameter of, 66, 

Economy and waste in th& 
steam-engine, 49. 
of working steam expan- 
sively, 215. 
young engineers should 
practise, 119. 

Eduction and induction, 145. 

Effect of vacuum on the work- 
ing of the steam-engine, 
133. 

Elasticity, temperature, vol« 
ume, and velocity, etc.* 
table showing, 257-259. 

Elbow, 111. 
with nipple, 164. 

Energy, 138. 



350 



Engine, agricultural portable, 
58. 

Armington & Sims', 40. 

beam, 56. 

Blymyer horizontal station- 
ary, 45, 50. 

Blymyer portable, 61. 

Buckeye automatic cut-off, 
59. 

Crist vibrating, 30. 

Diamond Baxter, 55. 

Greenfield yacht, 57. 

how to locate an, 92. 

how to set up an, 98. 

how to treat the, 105. 

Kriebel's vibratory cylinder 
valveless yacht, 87. 

marine, 33. 

sectional view of Kriebel 
vibrating valveless, 75. 

stationary, 85. 

Steam's, the, 93. 

Taylor vertical, 109. 

Twiss automatic cut-off, 34. 

Twiss yacht, 77. 

Westinghouse, the, 137. 

Whitehall automatic cut-off, 
65. 
Engineer, amateur, 117. 
TZngines, condensing and non- 
condensing, difference be- 
tween, 54. 

fire, 33. 

portable and semi-steam-, 58. 

table showing amount of lap 
required for stationary and 
locomotiveslide- valve, 148. 



Engines, traction, 32. 
Equivalents, chemical, 199. 
Exhaust-pipe, diameter of, 67, 
Expansion, 215. 
of air by heat, table show* 
ing, 173. 
Explosions, steam-boiler, 269. 
Eye, 111. 

Feed-water heater, Baning- 
warith, 286. 
heaters, 286. 

Feet, 111. 

Ferrule, 164. 

Finding the distance the pis- 
ton travels ahead of its 
central position on out- 
board stroke, rule for, 72. 

Fingers, 111. 

Fire-box boiler, Steam's tubu- 
lar, 237. 

Fire-engines, 33. 
Amoskeag, 62. 

Firing, instructions for, 261. 

Flat spanner, 163. 

Flue boiler, 227. 
McKee & Bankin, 232. 

Fly-wheel, diameter of, 68. 
functions of, 68. 

Fly-wheels, 68. 

Follower-plate, thickness, 67. 

Force, 138. 

Four-bladed screw-propeller, 
165. 

Fractional parts of an inch 
expressed decimally, table 
of, 311. 



351 



Frame, Corliss, 78. 

the Tangye, 78. 
Frames, upright, 79. 
Friction of the slide-valve, 
143. 
table of co-efficients of, 309, 
310. 
Front view of Twiss automatic 

cut-off engine, 34. 
'Fuel, 207. 

waste of, 288. 
Full gear and mid gear, 85. 
Function of safety-valve, 280. 
Functions of fly-wheel, 68. 

of indicator, 127. 
Furnace, Jarvis improved, 279. 
Furnaces, 279. 

Fusing temperature of differ- 
ent substances, in degrees 
Fah., table showing, 195. 

Galloway steam-boiler, 277. 
Gardner steam-engine gover- 
nor, 150. 
Gas-engine, the Sombert, 96. 
Gases, 305. 

Gear, full and mid, 85. 
Gib and key, breadth of, 66. 

thickness of, 68. 
Girder, the, 78. 
Governor, Gardner steam-en- 
gine, 150. 

Pickering steam-engine, 151. 

the steam-engine, 150. 
Grate-bar, the Adams, 272. 
Grate-bars, 272. 
Gravity, 139. 



Gravity, specific, 139. 
Greenfield yacht-engine, 57. 
Gridiron valve, 144. 
Guiding belts, Sellers & Co.'s 
binder-frame for, xxvi. 

Hand, 111. 

Harrison sectional steam- 
boiler, 228. 
Hat, 114. 
Head, 111. 

Head of water in feet, pressure 
being known, rule for find- 
ing, 186. 
Heat, 191. 
actual, 193. 
atomic force of, 193. 
mechanical equivalent of, 

193. 
mechanical theory of, 192. 
molecular force of, 193. 
unit of, 192, 300. 
Heater, Badger, 288. 
Heaters, feed-water, 286. 
Heating power of coke as fuel, 
table showing, 205. 
surface, etc., to develop a 
horse-power under ordi- 
nary circumstances, table 
showing number of square 
feet of, 253. 
Hemp, raw, 101. 
High pressure or non-condens* 

ing steam-engine, 54. 
Hood, 113. 
Horse-power, 139. 
actual or net, 39. 



352 



Horse-power, indicated, 39. 

nominal, 39. 

of steam-engine, rule for 
finding, 39. 

of steam-engines, 37. 

of steam-boilers, 231. 
Housings and bed-plates, 76. 
Mow steam-boilers are made, 
238. 

steam-engines are made, 89. 

to attach the indicator, 129. 

to clean a steam-engine, 95. 

to locate an engine, 92. 

to set a slide-valve, 146. 

to set out piston -packing in 
cylinder, 99. 

to set up an engine, 98. 

to treat the engine, 105. 
Hydrodynamics, 139. 
Hydrostatics, 139. 
Hyperbolic logarithms, table 
of, 219. 

Idlers, Sellers & Co.'s, 341. 
Ignition, spontaneous, 200. 
Impact, 139. 
Impetus, 139. 
Incrustation of steam-boilers, 

282. 
Indicated horse-power, 39. 
Indicator, Brown's revolution, 
153. 

diagram, 128. 

functions of, 127. 

how to adjust the, 129. 

speed-revolution, 153. 

steam-engine, 126. 



Indicator, Thompson's steam« 
engine, 126. 
Watt's, 127. 
Induction and eduction, 145. 
Inertia, 139. 

Ingredients in Newcastle coal 
(English), table showing, 
205. 
Inhumanity to the machine, 

man's, 106. 
Initial pressure, 35. 
temperature, 289. 
Injector, 322. 
adjustable, 322, 323. 
fixed nozzle, 323. 
self-adjusting, 322. 
Injectors, William Sellers & 
Co.'s, 322. 
instructions for setting up, 
328. 
Instructions for firing, 261. 

for setting up injectors, 328. 
Iron boilers, table showing 
safe working internal 
pressures for, 244-247. 
charcoal, 278. 

Jacket, 113. 

Jarvis improved furnace, 279. 

Jaws, 111. 

Jet condenser, 135. 

Key-slot, distance from, 67. 

Knees, 111. 

Knocking in steam-engines, 

114. 
Knuckles, 111. 



353 



JLriebeVs vibrating valveless 
engine, sectional view, 75. 
vibrating cylinder valveless 
yacht-engine, 87. 

Kuntzing's piston-rod pack- 
ing, 101. 

Zane & Bodey traction or self- 
propelling steam-engine, 
63. 
Zap on the slide-valve, 147. 
required for stationary and 
locomotive slide-valve en- 
gines, table showing, 148. 
Zazy tongs, or the Pantograph, 

131. 
Zead of the slide-valve, 149. 
Zegs, 111. 

Zength of crank-pin, 67. 
of crank-shaft bearing, 67. 
of cross-head bearings, 67. 
of rock-shaft bearing, 67. 
unit of, 300. 
Zet the steam-engine alone, 

104. 
Zevers, 140. 
Zink. the. 85. 
Zips, 111. 

Zocate an engine, how to, 92. 
Zocomotive or marine boilers, 

240. 
Zogarithms, 306. 
of numbers from to 60, 

table of, 307, 308. 
table of hyperbolic, 219. 
Zoss of heat by radiation, etc., 
table showing, 320. 
30* X 



Zost motion, 141. 

Zubricator Eclipse, 343, 344. 

Machine, 140. 

man's inhumanity to the 

106. 
riveting, 240. 

Main connecting- rods, 87. 

Mantle, 114. 

Manufacture of steam-en- 
gines, materials employed 
in, 91. 

Marine engine, 33. 

Mass, 140. 

Materials, boiler, 277. 
employed in the manufac- 
ture of steam-engines, 
91. 

Matter, 140. 

McKee and Rankin flue-boiler, 
232. 

Measures and weights, table 
of, 313, 314. 
standards of English and 
United States linear, cu- 
bic, square, solid, and 
liquid, table of, 312. 

Mechanical and natural proc ■ 
ess, vocabulary of, 138. 
equivalents of heat, 193. 
powers, 140. 
theory of heat, 193. 

Melting-points of different sol- 
ids, and of alloys, table 
showing, 196. 

Mid and full gear, 85. 

Modem steam-engine, 64. 

Modulus of elasticity of dif- 



354 



ferent materials, etc., table 

showing, 316. 
Molecular force of heat, 193. 
Momentum, 140. 
Monkey-wrench, 163. 
Motion, 140. 

lost, 141. 
Mouth, 111. 
Movers, prime, 141. 
Moving outboard, or over 

crank, 82. 
Mule pulleys, Sellers & Co.'s, 

338. 
Multipliers, table of, 221. 
Murrill & Kyser's automatic 

steam-damper, 264. 

Natural and mechanical proc- 
ess, vocabulary of, 138. 

Neck, 112. 

Net horse-power, 39. 

Nominal horse-power, 39. 

Non-condensing and condens- 
ing engines, difference be- 
tween, 54. 
steam-engine, 54. 

Non-conductors for preventing 
radiation and condensation 
in steam-cylinders, pipes, 
boilers, steam-domes, etc., 
318. 

Normal pressure, 213. 

Nose, 112. 

Number of strokes or revolu- 
tions required for a given 
piston speed, table show- 
ing, 156. 



Number of U. S. gallons con* 
tained in a foot of pipe of 
any given diameter, rule 
for finding, 185. 

Ocean steamers, 133. 
Owens & Richter's Corliss en- 
gine, 36. 

Packing, Kuntzing's piston- 
rod, 101. 
piston- and valve-rod, 101, 

102. 
right diameter of, 102. 
Paddle-wheel and screw-pro- 
peller, 165. 
steamers, 166. 
Paddle-wheels, 166. 
Pantograph, or lazy tongs, 

131. 
Payne & Son's vertical engines 

and boilers, 60. 
Peat, vegetable composition of, 

table showing, 205. 
Peculiarities of design, 32. 
Performances, steam-boiler, 

233. 
Pet-cock, 163. 
Petticoat, 113. 

Pickering steam-engine gov- 
ernor, 151. 
Piston- and valve-rod packing, 

101, 102. 
Piston of steam-engine, 33. 
ring, depth of, 66. 
rod, diameter of, 66. 
thickness of, 67. 



855 



Pisten-pacMng in cylinder, 
how to set out, 99. 
packing, Kuntzing's, 101. 
stains on, 72. 
Plain cylinder, 227. 
Planhneter, the, 131, 132. 
Plant, 141. 
Plug, 164. 
Pneumatics, 141. 
Pocket, 113. 
Poppet or double-beat valve, 

144. 
Portable and semi-steam-en- 
gines, 58. 

engine, agricultural, 58. 
Blymyer, 61. 
Power, 141. 
of steam-engine, 46. 
required to raise water to 
any height, rule for find- 
ing, 185. 
Potvers, mechanical, 140. 
Pressure, atmospheric, 214, 

253. 
Pressure, initial,, 35. 
in pounds per sq. in. exerted 
by a column of water, rule 
for finding, 185. 
normal, 213. 
of atmosphere, 168. 
of steam, 211. 
unit of, 300. 
Presstire - gauge, the steam, 

159, 161. 
Prime movers, 141. 
Proper thickness of steam-cyl- 
inders of steam-engines of 



different diameters, table 
showing, 76. 

Properties of saturated steam, 
222. 

Proportions of steam -engines, 
65. 

Pulley -belt, rule for finding de- 
sired length of, 342. 

Pulleys, mule, Sellers & Co.'s, 
338. 

Pumps, 329. 

Punched sheets, 239. 

Quantity of water a steam- 
boiler or any cylindrical 
vessel will contain, rule 
for finding, 184. 

of water discharged through 
an orifice per minute, rule 
for finding, 184. 

of water which any square or 
rectangular box or tank is 
capable of containing in 
cubic feet or U. S. gallons, 
rule for finding, 186. 

Radiation and condensation 
in steam-cylinders, pipes, 
boilers, steam-domes, etc., 
non - conductors for pre- 
venting, 318. 

Railroad train, 122. 

Saw hemp, 101. 

Reducer, 164. 

Re-evaporation, 145. 

Relative value of different non- 
conductors, table, 195. 



356 



Release, 145. 

Required height of a column 
of water to supply a steam- 
boiler against any given 
pressure of steam, rule for 
finding, 185. 

"Requisite quantity of water for 
a steam-boiler, rule for 
finding, 185. 

Resistance of atmosphere, 35, 
215. 

Return bend, 164. 

Revolution and stroke, 154. 
indicator, the Brown, 153. 
indicator, the Speed, 153. 

Ribs, 112. 

RicJiter's Corliss engine, 36. 

Right diameter of packing, 102. 

Riveting machine, 240. 

Rock-shaft bearing, diameter 
of, 67. 
length of, 67. 
pin, diameter of, 67. 

Rolling -mills, 69. 

Root sectional steam - boiler, 
225. 

Rotary and plug valves, 144. 

Round chimneys, 236. 
spanner, 163. 

Rule for calculating the quan- 
tity of water required for 
different specific purposes, 
184. 
for finding amount of benefit 
to be derived from work- 
ing steam expansively, 
218. 



Rule for finding average press- 
ure in steam-cylinders, 221. 

desired length of pulley belt, 
342. 

diameter of a driven pulley, 
a given number of revolu- 
tions of the driver being 
known, 342. 

diameter of a pipe sufficient 
to discharge a given quan- 
tity of water per minute in 
cubic feet, 185. 

distance the piston travels 
ahead of a central position 
on the outboard stroke, 
and lags behind on the in- 
board, 72. 

head of water in feet, press- 
ure being known, 186. 

horse-power of a steam-en- 
gine, 39. 

number of U. S. gallons con- 
tained in a foot of pipe of 
any given diameter, 185. 

power required to raise water 
to any height, 185. 

pressureinpounds per square 
inch exerted by a column 
of water, 186. 

pressure per square inch 
when area of valve, weight 
of ball, etc., are known, 
282. 

quantity of water a steam- 
boiler or any cylindrical 
vessel will contain, 184. 

quantity of water discharged 



357 



through an orifice per 
minute, 184. 
Bute for finding quantity of 
water which any square 
or rectangular box or tank 
is capable of containing in 
cub. ft. or U. S. gals., 186. 

required amount of lap for 
slide-valve corresponding 
to any desired point of cut- 
off, 148. 

required height of a col- 
umn of water to supply a 
steam-boiler against any 
given pressure of steam, 
185. 

required size of a driving- 
pulley for any required 
speed, 342. 

requisite quantity of water 
for a steam-boiler, 185. 

thickness of steam - engine 
cylinders, 76. 

time a cistern will take in 
filling, when a known 
quantity of water is going 
in and a known quantity 
is. going out, in a given 
time, 184. 

time a vessel takes in emp- 
tying itself of water, 184. 

weight necessary to put on a 
lever when area of valve, 
pressure, etc., are known, 
282. 
Safety-valves, 2.80. 

functions of, 280. 



Sal-soda, 275. 

Saturated air, table showing 
weight and composition of, 
174. 
steam, properties of, 222. 
steam, table showing proper- 
ties of, 255, 256. 
Scale and incrustation from 
steam-boilers, solvents foi 
removing, 275. 
Screenings of coal, 207. 
Screw, diameter of, 167. 

stop-valve, 163. 
Screw -'propeller and paddle- 
wheel, 165. 
four-bladed, 165. 
Seas, specific gravity of differ- 
ent, 181. 
Sectional boilers, 234. 
steam-boiler, Harrison, 228. 
steam-boiler, Root, 225. 
view of Kriebel vibrating 

valveless engine, 75. 
view of steam-gauge, 161. 
view of steam -pressure gauge, 
161. 
Self-adjusting injector, 322. 
Self-propelling or traction 
steam-engine, the Lane & 
Bodey, 63. 
Sellers & Co.'s binder-frame, 
xx vi. 
idlers, 341. 
injectors, 322. 
mule pulleys, 338. 
self-adjusting injectors, etc., 
table showing, 326. 



358 



Semi-steam and portable en- 
gines, 58. 
Sensible heat and decrease of 
latent heat, according to 
pressure, and viae versa, 
table showing, 254. 
Set-screw, 164, 

Set out piston-packing in cyl- 
inder, how to, 99. 
up an engine, how to, 98. 
Sheets, punched, 239. 
Shoes, 113. 
Shoulder, 112. 
Side-bed, the, 76. 
Single crank, 80. 
and eccentric, 79. 
fork-wrench, 164. 
Skin, 112. 
Sleeve, 113. 
Slide-valve, 142. 
friction of, 143. 
how to set a, 146. 
lap on the, 147. 
lead on the, 149. 
Slide-valves, balance, 144. 
Small steam-engines, 60. 
Smoke, 241. 

Solvents for removing scale 
and incrustation from 
steam-boilers, 275. 
Sombert gas-engine, the, 96. 
Spanner, flat, 163. 

round, 163. 
Specific gravity, 139. 
and weight of various sub- 
stances, table showing, 306. 
of different seas, 181. 



Specific gravity of different 
substances per cubic foot, 
table showing, 301-305. 
Speed-revolution indicator, 

153. 
Spontaneous combustion, 200. 

ignition, 200. 
Standard units adopted in 
this country and England, 
300. 
Standards of English and 
United States linear, 
square, cubic, solid, and 
liquid measures, table of, 
312. 
Stationary and locomotive 
slide-valve engines, table 
showing amount of lap 
required for, 148. 
Stationary engine, 85. 
back view of Blymyer hori- 
zontal, 50. 
front view of Blymyer hori- 
zontal, 45. 
Steam, 211. 
and water-cylinders, etc., 
table showing diameter 
of, 337. 
economy of working, 215. 
in cylinder for whole stroke, 
table showing average 
pressure, 220. 
in cylinders of a steam-en- 
gine, technical terms ap- 
plied to working of, 145. 
pressure of, 211. 
pressure-gauge, 159. 



359 



Steam pressure-gauge, section- 
al view of, 161. 

will escape into the atmos- 
phere at different press- 
ures from 1 to 130 pounds, 
etc., table showing, 260. 
Steam-boiler, care of the, 266. 

Cooper tubular, 267. 

explosions, 269. 

Harrison sectional, 228. 

performances, 233. 

Root sectional, 225. 

the " Common Sense," 273. 

the " Galloway," 277. 
Steam-boilers, 226. 

horse-power of, 231. 

how are made, 238. 

incrustation of, 282. 

solvents for. removing scale 
and incrustation from, 275. 
Steam-cylinders of steam-en- 
gines of different diam- 
eters, table showing proper 
thickness of, 76. 
Steam-damper, Murrill & 

Kyser's automatic, 264. 
fteam-engine, 27. 

alter a, 48. 

Ball, 71. 

care of, 94. 

crank of a, 81. 

cylinder, 73. 

cylinders, rule for finding 
thickness of, 76. 

economy and waste in the, 49. 

governor, 150. 

governor, Gardner, 150. 



Steam-engine governor, Pick* 
ering, 151. 

high-pressure, 54. 

how to clean, 95. 

indicator, Thompson's, 126. 

non-condensing, 54. 

power of, 46. 

the Lane & Bodey traction 
or self-propelling, 63. 

let alone, 104. 

modern, 64. 

piston of, 33. 

rule for finding horse-power 
of a, 39. 

straight-line, 103. 
Steam-engines, 31. 

and boilers which designate 
garments, technical terms 
applied to different parts 
of, 113. 

design of, 56. 

effect of vacuum on working 
of, 133. 

horse-power of, 37. 

how made, 89. 

indicator, 126. 

indicator, Thompson's, 126. 

knocking in, 114. 

materials employed in manu- 
facture of, 91. 

proportions of, 65. 

small, 60. 

traction, 62. 

technical terms applied to 
different parts of, 110. 
Steam-gauge, 159. 

seotional view of, 161. 



360 



Steam-pipe, diameter of, 66. 
Steam-piston, 70. 
Steam-pump, Cameron, 363. 

the " Dean," 329. 
Steam-pumps, 331. 

directions for setting up, 
335. 
Steam-riveting, 239. 
Steam-ivhistle> 157. 
Steamers, paddle-wheel, 166. 
Steam's tubular fire-box boil- 
er, 237. 

engine, the, 91. 
Stop-valve, 163. 

screw, 163. 

with tap, union, and pet- 
cock, 163. 
Straight - line steam - engine, 

103. 
Strains on piston-rod, 72. 
Straj), breadth of, 65. 
Straps, thickness of, 67. 
Stroke and revolution, 154. 
Stud-bolt, 164. 
Surface condenser, 135. 

unit of, 300. 
Symmetry of design, 64. 

Table deduced from an analy- 
sis of Indiana coals, 205. 

of co-efficients of friction, 
309, 310. 

of diameters, circumferences, 
and areas of circles from 
•jig of an inch to 25 inches, 
297-299. 

of diameters and areas of cir- 



cles from to £ of an inch, 
advancing from J, 296. 
Table of fractional parts of an 
inch expressed decimally, 
311. 

of hyperboliclogarithms, 219. 

of logarithms of numbers 
from to 60, 307. 

of multipliers, 221. 

of proportions of the Dayton 
cam pump, 334. 

of standards of English and! 
U. S. linear, square, cubic, 
solid, and liquid measures, 
312. 

of weights and measures, 313, 
314. 

showing amount of lap re- 
quired for stationary and 
locomotive slide-valve en- 
gines, 148. 

showing average number of 
gallons of water used per 
capita for culinary pur- 
poses, etc., 187. 

showing average pressure of 
steam in cylinder for whole 
stroke, 220. 

showing basis of Virginia 
caking coal, 204. 

showing boiling - point for 
fresh water at different 
altitudes above sea-level, 
182. 

showing boiling-points of 
liquids under pressure of 
one atmosphere, 182. 



361 



Table showing capacity of cis- 
terns and tanks, etc., 188. 

showing capacity of tanks 
of different diameters and 
depths in .gallons, 189, 
190. 

showing carbon,volatile, sul- 
phur, etc., in Pittsburgh 
coal, 205. 

showing chemical equiva- 
lents of wood, 205. 

showing combustible and 
non - combustible in best 
quality of American an- 
thracite coals, 204. 

showing combustible matter 
in different substances, etc., 
202. 

showing combustible value 
of Ohio coals, 204. 

showing comparative value 
of different kinds of wood 
as fuel, 210. 

showing composition of best 
Pennsylvania anthracite 
coal, 204. 

showing constituents of Cum- 
berland coals (American), 
204. 

showing crushing strength 
of different materials, in 
pounds per square inch, 
315. 

showing diameters and areas 
of circles from 0.10 to 1.00 
inch, advancing by .005, 
294. 
31 



Table showing diameter and 
circumference of circles 
from to f of an inch, 
advancing by eighths, 295. 

showing diameter of steam- 
and water-cylinders, etc., 
337. 

showing diminution in ten- 
acity of wrought-iron when 
exposed to high tempera- 
tures, 248. 

showing elasticity, tempera- 
ture, volume, and velocity, 
etc., 257-259. 

showing expansion of air by 
heat, and increase in bulk 
in proportion to increase 
of temperature, 173. 

showing fusing temperature 
of different substances, in 
degrees, Fah., 195. 

showing heating power of 
coke as fuel, 205. 

showing increase of sensi- 
ble heat and decrease of 
latent heat, according to 
pressure, and vice versd, 
254. 

showing ingredients in New- 
castle coal (English), 205. 

showing linear expansion of 
different metals by heat 
for each degree Fah., 249. 

showing loss of heat by ra- 
diation through uncovered 
steam-pipes, 320. 

showing maximum capacity 



362 



of Sellers' self-adjusting 
injectors, etc., 326. 
Table showing melting-points 
of different solids, and of 
alloys, 196. 

showing modulus of elastici- 
ty of different materials, 
etc., 316. 

showing number of square 
feet of heating surface, etc., 
to develop a horse-power 
under ordinary circum- 
stances, 253. 

showing number of strokes 
or revolutions required for 
a given piston speed, 156. 

showing percentage of saving 
of fuel effected by heating 
feed-water, steam-pressure 
60 pounds, 289. 

showing proper thickness of 
steam-cylinders of steam- 
engines of different diam- 
eters, 76. 

showing properties of satu- 
rated steam, 255, 256. 

showing relative value of dif- 
ferent non-conductors, 195. 

showing safe working inter- 
nal pressures for iron boil- 
ers. 244-247. 

showing specific gravity and 
weights of various sub- 
stances, 306. 

showing specific gravity of 
different substances per cu- 
bic foot, 301-305. 



Table showing temperature at 
which different substances 
become combustible, etc., 
201. 

showing temperature of fire, 
and the appearance of 
different fuels at different 
degrees Fah., 195. 

showing tensile strength of 
different materials, etc., 
250. 

showing theoretic value of 
different kinds of American 
coal in heat units, etc., 203. 

showing units of heat re- 
quired to evaporate each 
pound of feed-water, etc., 
290-292. 

showing vacuum in inches 
of mercury and pounds 
pressure per square inch 
taken from above atmos- 
phere, 136. 

showing value of different 
substances as non-conduct- 
ors, 321. 

showing vegetable compo- 
sition of peat, 205. 

showing velocity with which 
steam will escape into the 
atmosphere, etc., 260. 

showing weight and compo- 
sition of saturated air, 174. 

showing weight of water in 
pipe of various diameters 
one foot in length, 183. 
Tangye frame, 78. 



363 



Tanks of given diameters and 
depths in gallons, table 
showing capacity of, 189, 
190. 

Tap-bolt, 164. 
long, 164. 

Taylor vertical engine, 109. 

Technical terms applied to dif- 
ferent parts of steam-en- 
gines and boilers which 
designate garments, 113. 
terms applied to different 
parts of steam-engines 
which designate the mem- 
bers of the human body, 
110. 
terms applied to the working 
of steam in cylinders of a 
steam-engine, 145. 

Tee, 164. 

Teeth, 112. 

Temperature, initial, 289. 
of combustion, 197. 
of fire, and the appearance 
of different fuels at differ- 
ent degrees Fah., table 
showing, 195. 
terminal, 289. 

Template, 98. 

Tensile strength of different 
materials in pounds per 
square inch, table show- 
ing, 250. 

Terminal temperature, 289. 

Test, boilers, 230. 

Thickness of crank, 67. 
of follower-plate, 67. 



Thickness of gib and key, 68. 
of piston, 67. 

of steam-engine cylinders, 
rule for finding, 76. 
Thompson's steam-engine in- 
dicator, 126. 
Time a cistern will take in fill- 
ing, when a known quan- 
tity of water is passing in 
and out, rule for finding, 
184. 
a vessel will take in empty- 
ing itself of water, rule for 
finding, 184. 
unit of, 300. 
Toes, 112. 
Tongue, 112. 
Tools, 141. 
what young engineers should 
have, 121. 
Torsion, 141. 
Traction engines, 32. 
or self-propelling steam-en- 
gine, Lane & Bodey, 63. 
steam-engines, 62. 
Train, railroad, 122. 
Travelling inboard, or under 

crank, 82. 
Treat the engine, how to, 105. 
Tubular boiler, 227. 

fire-box boiler, Steam's, 237. 
Tubulous, 230. 

Turner condenser and air- 
pump, 175. 
Twiss automatic cut-off engint, 
front view of, 34. 
yacht- engine, 77. 



864 



Union, 164. 

or cup and roll-joint, 164. 
Unit of heat, 192. 
Upright boiler, 229. 

frames, 79. 

Vacuum, 133. 
in inches of mercury, etc., 
table showing, 136. 
Vacuum-gauge, 162. 
Value of different substances 
as non-conductors, table 
showing, 321. 
Valve, basket, 144. 
gridiron, 144. 

poppet or double-beat, 144. 
Valve- and piston-rod packing, 

101, 102. 
Valve-rod, diameter of, 66. 
Valueless yacht-engine, Krie- 
bel's vibratory cylinder, 
87. 
Valves, function of safety-, 280. 
rotary and plug, 144. 
safety, 280. 
Vegetable composition of peat, 

table showing, 205. 
Velocity, 141. 
unit of, 300 
I Vertical engine, the Taylor, 
109. 
engines and boilers, Payne 
& Son's, 60. 
Vibrating engine, Crist, 30. 
valveless engine, sectional 
view of Kriebel's, 75. 
Vibratory cylinder valveless 



yacht- engine, Kriebel's, 
87. 
Vocabulary of natural and 
mechanical process, 138. 

Waist, 113. 

Waste and economy in the 
steam-engine, 49. 
of fuel, 288. 
Water, 179. 
required for different spe- 
cific purposes, rules for 
calculating quantity of, 
184. 
used per capita for culinary 
purposes, etc., table show- 
ing, 187. 
Watt's condensing- engine, 56. 

indicator, 127. 
Weight, 141. 
of water in pipe of various 
diameters one foot in 
length, table showing, 183. 
unit of, 300. 
Weights and measures, table 

of, 313, 314. 
Westinghouse engine, 137. 
What should the young en- 
gineer be ? 115. 
should the young engineer 

know ? 117. 
tools should the young en- 
gineer have ? 121. 
Wheels, paddle, 166. 
Whitehall automatic cut-off 

engine, 65. 
Whole stroke, crank at, 82. 



365 



Wood, 210. 
as fuel, table showing com- 
parative value of different 
kinds of, 210. 
chemical equivalents of, 
table showing, 205. 
Work, unit of, 300. 
Working of steam-engine, ef- 
fect of vacuum on, 133. 
of steam in cylinders of a 
steam-engine, technical 
terms applied to, 145. 
Wrist, 112. 
or cross-head pin, diameter 
of, 66. 



Wrought-iron when exposed 
to high temperatures, table 
showing diminution in 
tenacity of, 248. 

Yacht-engine, Greenfield, 57. 

Twiss, 77. 
Yoke-wrench with slot, 164. 
Young engineer, 115. 

and his employer, conversa- 
tion between, 124. 

should have what tools, 121. 

should practise economy, 
119. 

what should know, 117. 




THE CAMERON STEAM-PUMP. 
THE END. 



David McKay, 

PHILADELPHIA, 

Publisher of 

Roper's Hand-Book of the Locomotive, including the 
Modelling, Construction, Eunning, and Management of 
Locomotive Engines and Boilers. Fully Illustrated. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Eleventh Edition, Revised, 
Enlarged and Corrected. 18mo, tuck, gilt edge, $2.50. 

Roper's Catechism of High Pressure or Non-Condensing 
Steam-Engines, including the Modelling, Construction, 
Running, and Management of Steam-Engines and Boilers. 
With Illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Twen- 
tieth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 18mo, tuck, gilt 
edge, $2.00. 

Roper's Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines, includ- 
ing the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Manage- 
ment of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers, with the 
latest improvements in the same. Fully Illustrated. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. 600 pages. Tenth Edition, 
Revised and Enlarged. 16mo, tuck, gilt edge, $3.50. 

Roper's Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines, in- 
cluding the Running, Care, and Management of Steam 
Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps. With Illustrations. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. It is the only book of the 
kind ever published in this country, as it contains an 
67 



elaborate description of all Modern Steam Fire-Engines, 
Boilers, and Fire-Pumps, and is free from formulae or ultra 
mathematical expressions. Fourth Edition. 16mo, tuck, 
gilt edge, $3.50. 

(toper's Engineer's Handy-Book. Containing a full expla- 
nation of the Steam- Engine Indicator, and its use and 
advantages to Engineers and Steam Users ; with formulae 
for estimating the power of all classes of Steam-Engines ; 
also, Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers 
who wish to qualify themselves for the United States 
Navy, the Ee venae Service, the Mercantile Marine, or to 
take charge of the better class of Stationary Steam-En- 
gines. With Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Eevised and 
Enlarged. By Stephen Eopee, Engineer. $3.50. 

Roper's Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler, including 
its Care and Management. With Illustrations. This is 
the only book ever published in this country devoted ex- 
clusively to Steam-Boilers. It contains illustrations of all 
the different kinds of Steam-Boilers now in use, whether 
Stationary, Locomotive, Fire, or Marine ; and also of 
Sectional or Patent Boilers. By Stephen Eopee, En- 
gineer. Eighth Edition. 18mo, tuck, gilt edge, $2.00. 

Roper's Questions and Answers for Engineers. This little 
book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be 
asked when undergoing an examination for the purpose 
of procuring a license, with the answers to the same, 
couched in language so plain that any engineer or fireman 
can in a short time commit them to memory. Price $2,00. 



aq 0.990 
/ W-& 

Roper's Simple Process for Estimating the Horse-Powejr ol 
Steam-Engines, from Indicator Diagrams, or the*wtfrk an 
engine was performing at the time the diagram was taken. 
One of the most important devices ever employed in con- 
nection with the Steam-Engine. 50 cents. 

Roper's Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and 
Firemen. This little book is made up of a series of sug* 
gestions and instructions, the result of recent experiments 
and the best modern practice in the care of Steam-Engines 
and Boilers. It is brimful of just such information as 
persons of limited education having charge of steam ma- 
chinery need. It is written in plain, practical language, 
devoid of theories or mathematical formulae. $2.00. 

Roper's Care and Management of the Steam-Boiler. One 

of the most practical works ever published on this subject, 
as it embraces the following subjects: Care and Manage- 
ment of Steam-Boilers, Horse-Power of Steam-Boilers, 
Eepairing Steam-Boilers, Incrustation in Steam-Boilers, 
Steam-Boiler Explosions, Testing Steam-Boilers, Exter- 
nally and Internally Fired Steam-Boilers, Design of Steam- 
Boilers, Steam-Boiler Materials, Mud-Drums, Steam- 
Domes, Cleaning Steam-Boilers, Different Types of Steam- 
Boilers, Feed- Water Heaters, Fuel, Chimneys (area and 
height), Draught, Smoke, Instructions for Firing, Com 
parative Efficiency of Different Types of Steam-Boilers, 
with a great amount of other information of immenst 
value to owners of Steam-Boilers, Engineers, and Fireme* 
expressed in plain, practical language. $2.00. 
6* 69 



021 218 391 A 







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